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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
High intensity interval training negatively affects mood state in professional athletes L’entraînement par intervalles de haute intensité affecte négativement l’état d’humeur chez les athlètes professionnels O. Selmi a,b,∗, W. Ben khalifa a, M. Zouaoui a, F. Azaiez c,d, A. Bouassida a a
Research Unit, Sportive Performance and Physical Rehabilitation, High Institute of Sports and Physical Education of Kef, University of Jendouba, Boulifa University Campus, 7100 Kef, Tunisia b Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, 7021 Zarzouna-Bizerte, Tunisia c Higher Institute of Sport and the Physical Education of Sfax, BP 384, 3000 Sfax, Tunisia d Studies Group of Development and Social Environment (Faculty of Letters and Social Sciences of Sfax), BP 553, Sfax Ouest, 3023 Sfax, Tunisia Received 8 July 2017; accepted 5 January 2018
KEYWORDS Intense exercise; Intermittent training; Internal intensity; Players; Negative mood
Summary Objectives. — This study aimed to identify the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on psychological responses and to verify the relationship between Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and the Profile of Mood State (POMS) scores. Equipment and methods. — Twenty male soccer players took part in the study (mean ± SD: age = 23.85 ± 0.9 years). Training session: 28-min (4 × 4 minutes work interspersed with 3-min of passive recovery). Effort: HIIT: intermittent 10-s runs at 120% maximal aerobic speed interspersed with10-s of passive recovery. Psychological responses were collected before and after HIIT-session using POMS scores (Tension, Anger, Confusion, Depression, Fatigue, and Vigour). RPE was collected after HIIT-session. Results. — The HIIT resulted in: an increased anxiety, fatigue, total mood disturbance (TMD) (P < 0.05, ES = 0.41; P < 0.001, ES = 0.37; P < 0.001, ES = 1.48, respectively), a decreased vigor (P < 0.001, ES = 0.84). No significant correlation was found between POMS scores and RPE (P > 0.05). HIIT negatively affected POMS scores. Results support the interest of this tool as
∗ Corresponding author. Research Unit, Sportive Performance and Physical Rehabilitation, High Institute of Sports and Physical Education of Kef, University of Jendouba, Boulifa University Campus, 7100 Kef, Tunisia. E-mail address: [email protected] (O. Selmi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scispo.2018.01.008 0765-1597/© 2018 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
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O. Selmi et al. one for monitoring mental fatigue and emotional change during training in professional soccer players. Mood state does not seem to be affected by the perceived internal intensity. Additional HIIT to the soccer training sessions promoted different mood states that coaches need to be aware in a way to optimize physical fitness and recovery. © 2018 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
MOTS CLÉS Exercice intense ; Entraînement intermittent ; Intensité interne ; Joueurs ; Humeur négative
Résumé Objectifs. — Cette étude visait à identifier les effets de l’entraînement par intervalle à haute intensité (HIIT) sur les réponses psychologiques et de vérifier la relation entre les scores de la perception de l’effort (RPE) et les scores du profil de l’état d’humeur (POMS). Matériel et méthodes. — Vingt footballeurs ont participé à l’étude (moyenne ± ET : âge = 23,85 ± 0,9 ans). Séance d’entraînement : 28 minutes : (4 × 4 minutes de travail entrecoupées de 3 min de récupération passive). Effort : HIIT : 10-s de course intermittente à 120 % de la vitesse aérobie maximale entrecoupée de 10-s de récupération passive. Les réponses psychologiques ont été recueillies avant et après la séance de HIIT en utilisant les scores de POMS (tension, colère, confusion, dépression, fatigue et vigueur) tandis que RPE a été collecté après l’épreuve. Résultats. — HIIT a entraîné une augmentation des scores de l’anxiété, de la fatigue et de la perturbation totale de l’humeur (p < 0,05, ES = 0,41 ; p < 0,001, ES = 0,37 ; p < 0,001, ES = 1,48, respectivement) et une diminution de la vigueur (p < 0,001, ES = 0,84). Aucune corrélation significative n’a été trouvée entre les scores de POMS et RPE (p > 0,05). HIIT a affecté négativement les scores de POMS. Les résultats confirment l’intérêt de cet outil pour surveiller la fatigue mentale et les changements émotionnels pendant l’entraînement chez les footballeurs professionnels. L’état d’humeur ne semble pas être affecté par l’intensité interne perc ¸ue. L’adjonction d’un entraînement par intervalles à haute intensité aux séances d’entraînement de football provoque des modifications négatives de la tonalité de l’humeur que les entraîneurs devraient prendre en considération pour optimiser la condition physique et la récupération. © 2018 Elsevier Masson SAS. Tous droits r´ eserv´ es.
1. Introduction It is well know that soccer competition stresses the aerobic metabolism while demanding high intensity activity. To improve specifically aerobic fitness in soccer, several training methods have been used in training regimen including high-intensity interval training (HIIT) [1]. HIIT is an exercise modality that alternates between short bouts of very high intensity effort and recovery periods [1,2]. Indeed, HIIT has the potential to improve the soccer players’ aerobic fitness [3]. Several studies indicated that HIIT have been stated in players with improved cardio-respiratory fitness of players. Besides, aerobic power and delayed fatigue compared to continuous running methods [3—6]. In fact, Different HIIT structures (30s—30s, 15s—15s, 10s—10s, 10s—20s, 5s—25s) were used as a significant way for achieving greater improvements in physiological responses since they allow individuals to realize activities at high intensities for definite durations [7]. It-well-known that in comparison to physical conditioning and physiological response, exercise training have been positively related to affective appearance in soccer players [8]. In this regard, a recent study reported that HIIT causes discomfort and annoyance of players and bad intervention in training exercise [9]. It has been found that HIIT offer negative feeling that reduce player enjoyment,
such as the opportunity to repeatedly race with the same action effected and routine of training [9,10]. According to the literature, intensified training exercises can affect the mood state of athletes which suggested that exhaustion after intensified training session lead to increase anxiety, anger, hostility and depression [11,12]. Moreover, intense training increase negative mood [13]. However, moderate intensity training is associated with a positive mood [14]. For determining training intensity, the modified Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale is one of the useful tools to assess exercise intensity [15]. Using RPE-scale provides a subjective estimation of the intensity perceived by soccer players [3,16,17]. This method is a psychophysiological measure that encompasses sensation of muscle soreness, strain, heart rate, discomfort and fatigue that an individual experiences during exercise [18]. However, according to our knowledge, there is no information concerning the relationship between internal intensity of the training session and mood state of players during intensified training in soccer. Thus, the aim of the present study was to identify the impact of HIIT on mood state and to verify the relationship between RPE-scale and POMS scores during HIIT session in professional soccer players. We hypothesized that HIIT would produce a psychological disturbance and that perceived internal intensity does not affect the mood state.
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2. Materials and methods 2.1. Subjects Twenty male soccer players competed for the same team at a national level took part in the study (mean ± SD: age = 23.85 ± 0.9 years, stature = 179.3 ± 8.46 cm, body mass = 73.55 ± 7.4 kg, and body fat = 11.02 ± 0.8). All players had a minimum of 12.3 years of experience in competitive soccer. The players trained 5 times per week and participating in 1 official competition. Participants refrained from additional exercise outside of the study requirements as well as alcohol and caffeine intake for at least 24 h prior to any of the test sessions. All players were notified of the research procedures, requirements, benefits and risks before giving written informed consent. The study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki, and the ethical approval was granted by the Institutional Human Research Ethics Committee.
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consecutive occasions or felt that he could not complete the stage [21]. The velocity of the last 1-min stage completed by each subjects was retained as the player’s MAS.
2.5. The high intensity interval training (HIIT) HIIT intervention was preceded by a standardized warm-up for a period of 15 minutes consisting of jogging, coordination movements and dynamic stretching and 3 minutes of recovery separated the warm-up from the training conditions. The duration of HIIT training was 25 minutes accomplished as intervals consisting of four bouts of 4 minutes separated by 3 minutes of passive recovery between exercise bouts. The speeds used were relative to each subject’s MAS measured in the second session (corresponding to 120% of their MAS). Players had to cover a predetermined distance for 10seconds. After a 10-second passive rest, they started running again.
2.6. Rating of perceived exertion 2.2. Experimental design The study was realized during the competitive period. Data collection was divided into three stages on different days. The players’ first visit was to measure their anthropometric characteristics. In the second visit, maximal aerobic speed value (MAS) was determined through the yo-yo intermittent recovery test level 1. Experimental sessions were performed on the third visits (i.e., 10s- 10s HIIT training), in which studied variables were collected before (i.e., The Profile of Mood State (POMS)) and after (i.e., POMS, RPE) the HIIT session. During the second and the third visits, players were asked to refrain from vigorous activity (48 h before), eating (3 h before) and drinking caffeine based beverages (8 h before).
2.3. Anthropometric evaluation Standing height and body mass were measured using standard techniques with a variability of 0.2 kg and 5 mm, respectively. Height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm and body mass was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg with a digital scale (OHAUS, Florhman Park, NJ). Skinfold thickness was determined in triplicate at four standard sites (biceps, triceps, subscapular and suprailiac), using a calibrated Harpenden calliper (Holtain Instruments, Crosswell, Pembrokeshire, UK). Body density was estimated according to the equations of Durnin and Womersley [19]. Body fat percentage was calculated by using Siri’s equation [20].
2.4. Yo-yo intermittent recovery test (YIRT) The YIRT is an incremental intensity test is used to evaluate aerobic performance [21]. This protocol consists of repeated 20-m runs back and forth between the starting, turning, and finishing lines (180◦ angle), and at a progressively increased speed, which is controlled by audio beeps from a tape recorder. The test was performed on a synthetic grass field in groups of 6 players. As suggested by literature, the test was stopped when a subject could no longer maintain the required running speed dictated by the beep for two
Rating of perceived exertion was evaluated using the RPE scale (Borg CR-10 scale) proposed by Foster et al. to determine the intensity of training sessions [15]. Before testing, all participants were familiarized with the CR-10 scale. This method is already validated in soccer despite the various influences that can affect the RPE [22].
2.7. The profile of mood state (POMS) Fifteen minutes before exercise intervention, players completed the Profile of Mood State (POMS) questionnaire [23]. This test was performed before and after training intervention to evaluate the mood state. The inventory contains 65 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely) in responses to questions such as ‘‘How are you feeling right now?’’ and includes six subscales: tension-anxiety, depressiondejection, anger-hostility, vigor-activity, fatigue-inertia, and confusion-bewilderment. The six subscales of POMS can be combined into a Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) score by summing the T scores for the five negative mood subscales, and subtracting the T score for positive mood state and adding a constant of 100 in order to prevent negative numbers, [TMD = ((Anger + Confusion + Depression + Fatigue +Tension) − Vigor) + 100].
2.8. Statistical analysis Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20 for Windows (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Il, USA). Data are expressed on average SD (Standard deviation). The normality of data sets was checked using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Student’s paired t tests were used to examine differences of POMS scores before and after the HIIT session. Practical significance was also assessed by calculating the Cohen’s d effect size [24]. Effect sizes (ES) < 0.2, 0.2—0.6, 0.6—1.2, 1.2—2.0, 2.0—4.0 and 2.0—4.0, were considered as trivial, small, moderate, large and very large, respectively [25]. The magnitude of correlation coefficients was considered as
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Figure 1 Mean POMS scores collected before (pre-training) and after (post-training) high intensity interval training (HIIT) session. TMD = total mood disturbance. Error bars indicate within participants standard deviation. * reveals a significant difference between pre-training and post-training values.* P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001.
Table 1
Correlation coefficient between the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the profile of mood state (POMS) scores.
RPE
Tension
Anger
Confusion
Depression
Fatigue
Vigor
TMD
0.37
0.31
0.26
0.33
0.38
0.41
0.43
RPE: rating of perceived exertion
trivial (r < 0.1), small (0.1 < r < 0.3), moderate (0.3 < r < 0.5), large (0.5 < r < 0.7), very large (0.7 < r < 0.9), almost perfect (r > 0.9) or perfect (r = 1; Hopkins[26]). All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS v20.0.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago Illinois, USA). Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05, < 0.01 or < 0.001.
3. Results Statistical results allowed that RPE value after training is an overage of 7 (very hard). Fig. 1 shows also a significant change of the POMS scores with increase of the TMD (P < 0.001, ES = 1.48), anxiety (P < 0.05, ES = 0.41), fatigue (P < 0.001, ES = 0.37) and decrease of vigor (P < 0.001, ES = 0.84). Nevertheless, no significant difference was shown between pre and post HIIT intervention concerning anger and confusion scores (P > 0.05).
Pearson’s correlations were employed to determine the relationships between the variables of interest. Associations of POMS scores with RPE were not significant (P > 0.05) (Table 1).
4. Discussion The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of HIIT on mood state and to verify the relationship between the RPE and the POMS scores during the HIIT session. Major findings of the present study showed that HIIT training produced a significant increase in TMD, tension and fatigue and significant decrease vigor. Furthermore, there were no relationships between RPE and all POMS scores over the training session. Previous studies mentioned that the RPE would be an interesting way to control high intensity training. The present study showed that 10s—10s HIIT promoted high RPE. Our data showed that RPE values during the HIIT exceeded
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High-intensity interval training and mood state in soccer players the average of 7 (very hard). Our results reveal that players participating in HIIT methods worked at high intensity which suggests that RPE increases with the high intensity effort. This result is supported by recent studies that have shown that HIIT allowed reaching high values of heart rate, lactate and RPE [8,27]. In addition, it is well-known that HIIT solicit cardiovascular demand with high RPE value specifically designed to improve players’ aerobic fitness [28]. Indeed, it was reported that both increase in the percentage of MAS and decrease in recovery lead to higher RPE value [29]. However, in line to the current findings, previous study showed that 10s- 10s HIIT has caused the highest values in terms of heart rate and RPE by changing the percentage of MAS and work-recovery alteration [3]. Concerning psychological reaction, many studies highlighted the importance of the POMS questionnaire in evaluating mental fatigue in athletes [30]. Experimental studies with professional athletes showed that physical exercise could increase or decrease POMS scores. The present study shows that 10s—10s HIIT at 120% of MAS produced a significant increase in anxiety and fatigue and a significant decrease of vigor, while other scores did not change significantly between before and after HIIT (Fig. 1). This might suggest that intense interval training induces an increase in negative statements and a decrease in positive mood. Increases in fatigue and decreases in vigor after HIIT are usually associated with energy consumption and force production. These results were in agreement with a previously mentioned study which showed that intensified training causes higher scores for anxiety, fatigue and decreased vigor score [14]. Namely, according to available literature data, intense trainning exercice produces mood distrubance [31]. These finding suggested that 10s- 10s HIIT causes more poor affective responses and mental fatigue in soccer players. Increasing TMD during HIIT could be due to many parameters such as run routine, unavailability of the ball and high intensity. During HIIT, we believe that players’ demotivation may explain the changes in mood state. Specifically, participants in this study were discouraged by HIIT intervention. These results confirm our hypothesis that intensified training without ball produce mood disturbance. The relationship between POMS scores and RPE demonstrated that mood state does not seem to be influenced by RPE variation during HIIT. Current data is in contradiction with the findings of a recent study that found a negative correlation between RPE and affective response (Feeling Scale) for active and insufficiently active groups (P < 0.001; r = −.74 and r = −.51) respectively [10]. Additionally, previous study pointed that RPE, but not for HR, predicted the emotional response over a continuous and HIIT process [32]. In this sense, these authors assert that the model of emotional response appears to be modified by the intensity of exercise and by ‘‘how’’ individuals perceive this intensity. It should be mentioned that RPE and combining powerful of emotional responses are not symmetrical constructs. Currently, few studies have examined the emotional responses to a HIIT and their results are conflicting [8,28,33]. In fact, RPE are not contributing signals to altered anxiety, anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and vigor. Therefore, RPE can be used as an objective tool detecting the current state of players, sensitive to the identification of internal intensity after training session and suitable for
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monitoring load of exercise training [22]. Consequently the mood state can be used as an objective tool for assessing emotional and affective response during exercise or training period [14]. It seems that the opportunity to repeatedly cyclic run during exercise due to the decrease of the motivation factors. During HIIT, we consider that demotivation and fatigue with ball absence may clarify negative mood and poor enjoyment [9]. In this context, further studies reported that soccer players who are the most motivated in training session are the ones who are the most physically enjoyed [34]. These results also suggest that the negative mood induced by a training method might vary according to modality of exercise, outcomes, and displeasure of the players. These findings are in part compatible with the ‘‘dual-mode’’, which indicates the existence of a negative correlation between the intensity of the exercise and the feelings of pleasure [10]. By the literature data it could be explained by the intensity of exercise above the ventilator threshold (near the point of respiratory compensation) generates homogeneous feelings of dissatisfaction [35,36]. It is possible to think that exercise preference or personality factors of subjects may be involved in these varied emotional responses during HIIT model. Mood state does not seem to be affected by the RPE during HIIT among soccer players. HIIT is extremely popular and is most of the time presented as the ‘‘best’’ training procedure [10]. Baquet et al. [37], for example, showed that 7-week HIIT program (exercised twice a week) applied in children’s physical education lessons enhanced significantly aerobic performance (maximal oxygen uptake and maximal aerobic speed by 8.2%) and anaerobic performance (short-term muscle power, strength and speed). In addition, Sperlich et al. [38] analyzed the effects of a 5-week HIIT program in 14-year-old soccer players, revealed a significant improvement in oxygen uptake (7%), running time and sprint performance, but no changes in jumping performance. Regardless methodological dissimilarities, recent studies reinforce this finding ˙ by demonstrating that HIIT protocol improves VO2max in sedentary subjects [39]. As mentioned above, HIIT protocol is presented as effective at improving aerobic performance for both trained and sedentary subjects, so it could be beneficial by decreasing negative affective responses or perceived exertion [35]. In this line Selmi et al. [8] demonstrated that HIIT in professional soccer players produced a mood disturbance by increasing tension, fatigue and a decreased vigor. In contrast, Nalc ¸akan et al. [40] suggested that decreasing sprint duration from 20 to 10s during reduced-exertion HIIT in sedentary individuals attenuates the increase in maximal aerobic capacity but no changes in affective and perceptual responses. HIIT sessions were associated with significant increase in positive affect and vigor measured post-exercise, while an observed decrease in depression, tension and total mood disturbance scores. The difference between the results of these last two searches may be due to the characteristics of the study population (trained and sedentary), the HIIT program used (time by sprint: 15s, 20s and 10s), the tool used to measure psychological responses (Profile of Mood State [POMS] questionnaire and Brunel Mood Scale [BRUMS]). Although this study found that there is mood disturbance during HIIT training and no relationship between POMS
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scores and perceived internal intensity in HIIT. Some limitations must be taken into account when interpreting the results. First, the study sample was relatively small, thereby limiting the conclusions which could be made. Indeed, this study was conducted at the player’s senior category and is not expanded on different categories to see the mood state during training exercise. Second the experimentation was conducted in the middle of the competitive period where coaches seek to maintain physical ability. Therefore, it seems interesting to conduct further investigations in other period of the sports season. Third, only one format of HIIT was used, changing the percentage of MAS, duration of bouts, number of bouts and recovery periods, directional changes may have provided additional vision of the effect of altering recovery period on different HIIT formats. Finally, it would be interesting to associate these responses with hormonal variables because these parameters are important marker of psychosomatic status. These factors should be controlled for in future researches.
5. Conclusion To summarize, this study showed that HIIT training was affected negatively the mood state by negative change in POMS scores and supports the interest of this tools as a simple non-invasive, non-fatiguing, sensitive and effective for monitoring mental fatigue of professional soccer players. Using POMS questionnaire during intensive training session represent a useful strategy for coaches and fitness coaches to detect the current form of players, sensitive to the identification of stress after intense training and suitable for monitoring emotional changes of short duration. Mood state does not seem to be affected by the perceived internal intensity in professional soccer players. These results also suggest that RPE scale used for determining of training intensity and the mood disturbance induced by a training method might vary according to modality of exercise, demotivation, and displeasure of the participants. From practical point of view, coach and physical coach can used other motivate training methods such as small sided games for improving aerobic fitness and ensuring mood stability.
Disclosure of interest
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Acknowledgments The authors express their deepest thanks to soccer players for their effort to accomplish this study.
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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
High intensity interval training negatively affects mood state in professional athletes L’entraînement par intervalles de haute intensité affecte négativement l’état d’humeur chez les athlètes professionnels O. Selmi a,b,∗, W. Ben khalifa a, M. Zouaoui a, F. Azaiez c,d, A. Bouassida a a
Research Unit, Sportive Performance and Physical Rehabilitation, High Institute of Sports and Physical Education of Kef, University of Jendouba, Boulifa University Campus, 7100 Kef, Tunisia b Faculty of Sciences of Bizerte, University of Carthage, 7021 Zarzouna-Bizerte, Tunisia c Higher Institute of Sport and the Physical Education of Sfax, BP 384, 3000 Sfax, Tunisia d Studies Group of Development and Social Environment (Faculty of Letters and Social Sciences of Sfax), BP 553, Sfax Ouest, 3023 Sfax, Tunisia Received 8 July 2017; accepted 5 January 2018
KEYWORDS Intense exercise; Intermittent training; Internal intensity; Players; Negative mood
Summary Objectives. — This study aimed to identify the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on psychological responses and to verify the relationship between Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and the Profile of Mood State (POMS) scores. Equipment and methods. — Twenty male soccer players took part in the study (mean ± SD: age = 23.85 ± 0.9 years). Training session: 28-min (4 × 4 minutes work interspersed with 3-min of passive recovery). Effort: HIIT: intermittent 10-s runs at 120% maximal aerobic speed interspersed with10-s of passive recovery. Psychological responses were collected before and after HIIT-session using POMS scores (Tension, Anger, Confusion, Depression, Fatigue, and Vigour). RPE was collected after HIIT-session. Results. — The HIIT resulted in: an increased anxiety, fatigue, total mood disturbance (TMD) (P < 0.05, ES = 0.41; P < 0.001, ES = 0.37; P < 0.001, ES = 1.48, respectively), a decreased vigor (P < 0.001, ES = 0.84). No significant correlation was found between POMS scores and RPE (P > 0.05). HIIT negatively affected POMS scores. Results support the interest of this tool as
∗ Corresponding author. Research Unit, Sportive Performance and Physical Rehabilitation, High Institute of Sports and Physical Education of Kef, University of Jendouba, Boulifa University Campus, 7100 Kef, Tunisia. E-mail address: [email protected] (O. Selmi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scispo.2018.01.008 0765-1597/© 2018 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
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O. Selmi et al. one for monitoring mental fatigue and emotional change during training in professional soccer players. Mood state does not seem to be affected by the perceived internal intensity. Additional HIIT to the soccer training sessions promoted different mood states that coaches need to be aware in a way to optimize physical fitness and recovery. © 2018 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.
MOTS CLÉS Exercice intense ; Entraînement intermittent ; Intensité interne ; Joueurs ; Humeur négative
Résumé Objectifs. — Cette étude visait à identifier les effets de l’entraînement par intervalle à haute intensité (HIIT) sur les réponses psychologiques et de vérifier la relation entre les scores de la perception de l’effort (RPE) et les scores du profil de l’état d’humeur (POMS). Matériel et méthodes. — Vingt footballeurs ont participé à l’étude (moyenne ± ET : âge = 23,85 ± 0,9 ans). Séance d’entraînement : 28 minutes : (4 × 4 minutes de travail entrecoupées de 3 min de récupération passive). Effort : HIIT : 10-s de course intermittente à 120 % de la vitesse aérobie maximale entrecoupée de 10-s de récupération passive. Les réponses psychologiques ont été recueillies avant et après la séance de HIIT en utilisant les scores de POMS (tension, colère, confusion, dépression, fatigue et vigueur) tandis que RPE a été collecté après l’épreuve. Résultats. — HIIT a entraîné une augmentation des scores de l’anxiété, de la fatigue et de la perturbation totale de l’humeur (p < 0,05, ES = 0,41 ; p < 0,001, ES = 0,37 ; p < 0,001, ES = 1,48, respectivement) et une diminution de la vigueur (p < 0,001, ES = 0,84). Aucune corrélation significative n’a été trouvée entre les scores de POMS et RPE (p > 0,05). HIIT a affecté négativement les scores de POMS. Les résultats confirment l’intérêt de cet outil pour surveiller la fatigue mentale et les changements émotionnels pendant l’entraînement chez les footballeurs professionnels. L’état d’humeur ne semble pas être affecté par l’intensité interne perc ¸ue. L’adjonction d’un entraînement par intervalles à haute intensité aux séances d’entraînement de football provoque des modifications négatives de la tonalité de l’humeur que les entraîneurs devraient prendre en considération pour optimiser la condition physique et la récupération. © 2018 Elsevier Masson SAS. Tous droits r´ eserv´ es.
1. Introduction It is well know that soccer competition stresses the aerobic metabolism while demanding high intensity activity. To improve specifically aerobic fitness in soccer, several training methods have been used in training regimen including high-intensity interval training (HIIT) [1]. HIIT is an exercise modality that alternates between short bouts of very high intensity effort and recovery periods [1,2]. Indeed, HIIT has the potential to improve the soccer players’ aerobic fitness [3]. Several studies indicated that HIIT have been stated in players with improved cardio-respiratory fitness of players. Besides, aerobic power and delayed fatigue compared to continuous running methods [3—6]. In fact, Different HIIT structures (30s—30s, 15s—15s, 10s—10s, 10s—20s, 5s—25s) were used as a significant way for achieving greater improvements in physiological responses since they allow individuals to realize activities at high intensities for definite durations [7]. It-well-known that in comparison to physical conditioning and physiological response, exercise training have been positively related to affective appearance in soccer players [8]. In this regard, a recent study reported that HIIT causes discomfort and annoyance of players and bad intervention in training exercise [9]. It has been found that HIIT offer negative feeling that reduce player enjoyment,
such as the opportunity to repeatedly race with the same action effected and routine of training [9,10]. According to the literature, intensified training exercises can affect the mood state of athletes which suggested that exhaustion after intensified training session lead to increase anxiety, anger, hostility and depression [11,12]. Moreover, intense training increase negative mood [13]. However, moderate intensity training is associated with a positive mood [14]. For determining training intensity, the modified Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale is one of the useful tools to assess exercise intensity [15]. Using RPE-scale provides a subjective estimation of the intensity perceived by soccer players [3,16,17]. This method is a psychophysiological measure that encompasses sensation of muscle soreness, strain, heart rate, discomfort and fatigue that an individual experiences during exercise [18]. However, according to our knowledge, there is no information concerning the relationship between internal intensity of the training session and mood state of players during intensified training in soccer. Thus, the aim of the present study was to identify the impact of HIIT on mood state and to verify the relationship between RPE-scale and POMS scores during HIIT session in professional soccer players. We hypothesized that HIIT would produce a psychological disturbance and that perceived internal intensity does not affect the mood state.
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2. Materials and methods 2.1. Subjects Twenty male soccer players competed for the same team at a national level took part in the study (mean ± SD: age = 23.85 ± 0.9 years, stature = 179.3 ± 8.46 cm, body mass = 73.55 ± 7.4 kg, and body fat = 11.02 ± 0.8). All players had a minimum of 12.3 years of experience in competitive soccer. The players trained 5 times per week and participating in 1 official competition. Participants refrained from additional exercise outside of the study requirements as well as alcohol and caffeine intake for at least 24 h prior to any of the test sessions. All players were notified of the research procedures, requirements, benefits and risks before giving written informed consent. The study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki, and the ethical approval was granted by the Institutional Human Research Ethics Committee.
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consecutive occasions or felt that he could not complete the stage [21]. The velocity of the last 1-min stage completed by each subjects was retained as the player’s MAS.
2.5. The high intensity interval training (HIIT) HIIT intervention was preceded by a standardized warm-up for a period of 15 minutes consisting of jogging, coordination movements and dynamic stretching and 3 minutes of recovery separated the warm-up from the training conditions. The duration of HIIT training was 25 minutes accomplished as intervals consisting of four bouts of 4 minutes separated by 3 minutes of passive recovery between exercise bouts. The speeds used were relative to each subject’s MAS measured in the second session (corresponding to 120% of their MAS). Players had to cover a predetermined distance for 10seconds. After a 10-second passive rest, they started running again.
2.6. Rating of perceived exertion 2.2. Experimental design The study was realized during the competitive period. Data collection was divided into three stages on different days. The players’ first visit was to measure their anthropometric characteristics. In the second visit, maximal aerobic speed value (MAS) was determined through the yo-yo intermittent recovery test level 1. Experimental sessions were performed on the third visits (i.e., 10s- 10s HIIT training), in which studied variables were collected before (i.e., The Profile of Mood State (POMS)) and after (i.e., POMS, RPE) the HIIT session. During the second and the third visits, players were asked to refrain from vigorous activity (48 h before), eating (3 h before) and drinking caffeine based beverages (8 h before).
2.3. Anthropometric evaluation Standing height and body mass were measured using standard techniques with a variability of 0.2 kg and 5 mm, respectively. Height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm and body mass was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg with a digital scale (OHAUS, Florhman Park, NJ). Skinfold thickness was determined in triplicate at four standard sites (biceps, triceps, subscapular and suprailiac), using a calibrated Harpenden calliper (Holtain Instruments, Crosswell, Pembrokeshire, UK). Body density was estimated according to the equations of Durnin and Womersley [19]. Body fat percentage was calculated by using Siri’s equation [20].
2.4. Yo-yo intermittent recovery test (YIRT) The YIRT is an incremental intensity test is used to evaluate aerobic performance [21]. This protocol consists of repeated 20-m runs back and forth between the starting, turning, and finishing lines (180◦ angle), and at a progressively increased speed, which is controlled by audio beeps from a tape recorder. The test was performed on a synthetic grass field in groups of 6 players. As suggested by literature, the test was stopped when a subject could no longer maintain the required running speed dictated by the beep for two
Rating of perceived exertion was evaluated using the RPE scale (Borg CR-10 scale) proposed by Foster et al. to determine the intensity of training sessions [15]. Before testing, all participants were familiarized with the CR-10 scale. This method is already validated in soccer despite the various influences that can affect the RPE [22].
2.7. The profile of mood state (POMS) Fifteen minutes before exercise intervention, players completed the Profile of Mood State (POMS) questionnaire [23]. This test was performed before and after training intervention to evaluate the mood state. The inventory contains 65 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from 0 (not at all) to 4 (extremely) in responses to questions such as ‘‘How are you feeling right now?’’ and includes six subscales: tension-anxiety, depressiondejection, anger-hostility, vigor-activity, fatigue-inertia, and confusion-bewilderment. The six subscales of POMS can be combined into a Total Mood Disturbance (TMD) score by summing the T scores for the five negative mood subscales, and subtracting the T score for positive mood state and adding a constant of 100 in order to prevent negative numbers, [TMD = ((Anger + Confusion + Depression + Fatigue +Tension) − Vigor) + 100].
2.8. Statistical analysis Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS version 20 for Windows (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Il, USA). Data are expressed on average SD (Standard deviation). The normality of data sets was checked using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Student’s paired t tests were used to examine differences of POMS scores before and after the HIIT session. Practical significance was also assessed by calculating the Cohen’s d effect size [24]. Effect sizes (ES) < 0.2, 0.2—0.6, 0.6—1.2, 1.2—2.0, 2.0—4.0 and 2.0—4.0, were considered as trivial, small, moderate, large and very large, respectively [25]. The magnitude of correlation coefficients was considered as
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Figure 1 Mean POMS scores collected before (pre-training) and after (post-training) high intensity interval training (HIIT) session. TMD = total mood disturbance. Error bars indicate within participants standard deviation. * reveals a significant difference between pre-training and post-training values.* P < 0.05, ** P < 0.01, *** P < 0.001.
Table 1
Correlation coefficient between the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the profile of mood state (POMS) scores.
RPE
Tension
Anger
Confusion
Depression
Fatigue
Vigor
TMD
0.37
0.31
0.26
0.33
0.38
0.41
0.43
RPE: rating of perceived exertion
trivial (r < 0.1), small (0.1 < r < 0.3), moderate (0.3 < r < 0.5), large (0.5 < r < 0.7), very large (0.7 < r < 0.9), almost perfect (r > 0.9) or perfect (r = 1; Hopkins[26]). All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS v20.0.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago Illinois, USA). Statistical significance was set at P < 0.05, < 0.01 or < 0.001.
3. Results Statistical results allowed that RPE value after training is an overage of 7 (very hard). Fig. 1 shows also a significant change of the POMS scores with increase of the TMD (P < 0.001, ES = 1.48), anxiety (P < 0.05, ES = 0.41), fatigue (P < 0.001, ES = 0.37) and decrease of vigor (P < 0.001, ES = 0.84). Nevertheless, no significant difference was shown between pre and post HIIT intervention concerning anger and confusion scores (P > 0.05).
Pearson’s correlations were employed to determine the relationships between the variables of interest. Associations of POMS scores with RPE were not significant (P > 0.05) (Table 1).
4. Discussion The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of HIIT on mood state and to verify the relationship between the RPE and the POMS scores during the HIIT session. Major findings of the present study showed that HIIT training produced a significant increase in TMD, tension and fatigue and significant decrease vigor. Furthermore, there were no relationships between RPE and all POMS scores over the training session. Previous studies mentioned that the RPE would be an interesting way to control high intensity training. The present study showed that 10s—10s HIIT promoted high RPE. Our data showed that RPE values during the HIIT exceeded
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High-intensity interval training and mood state in soccer players the average of 7 (very hard). Our results reveal that players participating in HIIT methods worked at high intensity which suggests that RPE increases with the high intensity effort. This result is supported by recent studies that have shown that HIIT allowed reaching high values of heart rate, lactate and RPE [8,27]. In addition, it is well-known that HIIT solicit cardiovascular demand with high RPE value specifically designed to improve players’ aerobic fitness [28]. Indeed, it was reported that both increase in the percentage of MAS and decrease in recovery lead to higher RPE value [29]. However, in line to the current findings, previous study showed that 10s- 10s HIIT has caused the highest values in terms of heart rate and RPE by changing the percentage of MAS and work-recovery alteration [3]. Concerning psychological reaction, many studies highlighted the importance of the POMS questionnaire in evaluating mental fatigue in athletes [30]. Experimental studies with professional athletes showed that physical exercise could increase or decrease POMS scores. The present study shows that 10s—10s HIIT at 120% of MAS produced a significant increase in anxiety and fatigue and a significant decrease of vigor, while other scores did not change significantly between before and after HIIT (Fig. 1). This might suggest that intense interval training induces an increase in negative statements and a decrease in positive mood. Increases in fatigue and decreases in vigor after HIIT are usually associated with energy consumption and force production. These results were in agreement with a previously mentioned study which showed that intensified training causes higher scores for anxiety, fatigue and decreased vigor score [14]. Namely, according to available literature data, intense trainning exercice produces mood distrubance [31]. These finding suggested that 10s- 10s HIIT causes more poor affective responses and mental fatigue in soccer players. Increasing TMD during HIIT could be due to many parameters such as run routine, unavailability of the ball and high intensity. During HIIT, we believe that players’ demotivation may explain the changes in mood state. Specifically, participants in this study were discouraged by HIIT intervention. These results confirm our hypothesis that intensified training without ball produce mood disturbance. The relationship between POMS scores and RPE demonstrated that mood state does not seem to be influenced by RPE variation during HIIT. Current data is in contradiction with the findings of a recent study that found a negative correlation between RPE and affective response (Feeling Scale) for active and insufficiently active groups (P < 0.001; r = −.74 and r = −.51) respectively [10]. Additionally, previous study pointed that RPE, but not for HR, predicted the emotional response over a continuous and HIIT process [32]. In this sense, these authors assert that the model of emotional response appears to be modified by the intensity of exercise and by ‘‘how’’ individuals perceive this intensity. It should be mentioned that RPE and combining powerful of emotional responses are not symmetrical constructs. Currently, few studies have examined the emotional responses to a HIIT and their results are conflicting [8,28,33]. In fact, RPE are not contributing signals to altered anxiety, anger, confusion, depression, fatigue, and vigor. Therefore, RPE can be used as an objective tool detecting the current state of players, sensitive to the identification of internal intensity after training session and suitable for
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monitoring load of exercise training [22]. Consequently the mood state can be used as an objective tool for assessing emotional and affective response during exercise or training period [14]. It seems that the opportunity to repeatedly cyclic run during exercise due to the decrease of the motivation factors. During HIIT, we consider that demotivation and fatigue with ball absence may clarify negative mood and poor enjoyment [9]. In this context, further studies reported that soccer players who are the most motivated in training session are the ones who are the most physically enjoyed [34]. These results also suggest that the negative mood induced by a training method might vary according to modality of exercise, outcomes, and displeasure of the players. These findings are in part compatible with the ‘‘dual-mode’’, which indicates the existence of a negative correlation between the intensity of the exercise and the feelings of pleasure [10]. By the literature data it could be explained by the intensity of exercise above the ventilator threshold (near the point of respiratory compensation) generates homogeneous feelings of dissatisfaction [35,36]. It is possible to think that exercise preference or personality factors of subjects may be involved in these varied emotional responses during HIIT model. Mood state does not seem to be affected by the RPE during HIIT among soccer players. HIIT is extremely popular and is most of the time presented as the ‘‘best’’ training procedure [10]. Baquet et al. [37], for example, showed that 7-week HIIT program (exercised twice a week) applied in children’s physical education lessons enhanced significantly aerobic performance (maximal oxygen uptake and maximal aerobic speed by 8.2%) and anaerobic performance (short-term muscle power, strength and speed). In addition, Sperlich et al. [38] analyzed the effects of a 5-week HIIT program in 14-year-old soccer players, revealed a significant improvement in oxygen uptake (7%), running time and sprint performance, but no changes in jumping performance. Regardless methodological dissimilarities, recent studies reinforce this finding ˙ by demonstrating that HIIT protocol improves VO2max in sedentary subjects [39]. As mentioned above, HIIT protocol is presented as effective at improving aerobic performance for both trained and sedentary subjects, so it could be beneficial by decreasing negative affective responses or perceived exertion [35]. In this line Selmi et al. [8] demonstrated that HIIT in professional soccer players produced a mood disturbance by increasing tension, fatigue and a decreased vigor. In contrast, Nalc ¸akan et al. [40] suggested that decreasing sprint duration from 20 to 10s during reduced-exertion HIIT in sedentary individuals attenuates the increase in maximal aerobic capacity but no changes in affective and perceptual responses. HIIT sessions were associated with significant increase in positive affect and vigor measured post-exercise, while an observed decrease in depression, tension and total mood disturbance scores. The difference between the results of these last two searches may be due to the characteristics of the study population (trained and sedentary), the HIIT program used (time by sprint: 15s, 20s and 10s), the tool used to measure psychological responses (Profile of Mood State [POMS] questionnaire and Brunel Mood Scale [BRUMS]). Although this study found that there is mood disturbance during HIIT training and no relationship between POMS
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scores and perceived internal intensity in HIIT. Some limitations must be taken into account when interpreting the results. First, the study sample was relatively small, thereby limiting the conclusions which could be made. Indeed, this study was conducted at the player’s senior category and is not expanded on different categories to see the mood state during training exercise. Second the experimentation was conducted in the middle of the competitive period where coaches seek to maintain physical ability. Therefore, it seems interesting to conduct further investigations in other period of the sports season. Third, only one format of HIIT was used, changing the percentage of MAS, duration of bouts, number of bouts and recovery periods, directional changes may have provided additional vision of the effect of altering recovery period on different HIIT formats. Finally, it would be interesting to associate these responses with hormonal variables because these parameters are important marker of psychosomatic status. These factors should be controlled for in future researches.
5. Conclusion To summarize, this study showed that HIIT training was affected negatively the mood state by negative change in POMS scores and supports the interest of this tools as a simple non-invasive, non-fatiguing, sensitive and effective for monitoring mental fatigue of professional soccer players. Using POMS questionnaire during intensive training session represent a useful strategy for coaches and fitness coaches to detect the current form of players, sensitive to the identification of stress after intense training and suitable for monitoring emotional changes of short duration. Mood state does not seem to be affected by the perceived internal intensity in professional soccer players. These results also suggest that RPE scale used for determining of training intensity and the mood disturbance induced by a training method might vary according to modality of exercise, demotivation, and displeasure of the participants. From practical point of view, coach and physical coach can used other motivate training methods such as small sided games for improving aerobic fitness and ensuring mood stability.
Disclosure of interest
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Acknowledgments The authors express their deepest thanks to soccer players for their effort to accomplish this study.
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Please cite this article in press as: Selmi O, et al. High intensity interval training negatively affects mood state in professional athletes. Sci sports (2018), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scispo.2018.01.008