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Motivation theory and animal welfare issues — Towards a synthesis
287 frustrated pacing, while others perform vacuum nest building. It is not known whether the latter indicates strong motivation, and hence also frustration, or a low threshold for stimuli triggering nesting. Similarly, in systems with nest sites provided, it has hitherto been unclear whether motivation differs between hens which use them and those which lay elsewhere. The pre-laying behaviour of hens in cages provided with nest sites was compared with that in control ages. Nest sites were of four types, varying in complexity from a simple wooden surround within the cage to a nest box behind the cage. The proportion of hens laying in these sites varied, increasing with complexity. Furthermore, the pre-laying behaviour of hens which did not lay in the nest sites also varied; some showed abnormal behaviour indicative of frustration. This suggests that nesting motivation was high irrespective of the final choice of laying position. Nevertheless, the design of appropriate nesting facilities to be provided for hens is especially difficult, both because of the individual variation described and because stimuli for nest-site selection lie on a continuum from sub-optimal to super-normal.
Motivation Theory and Animal Welfare Issues Towards a Synthesis
FREDERICK TOATES
BiologyD~artmen~TheOpen Universi~ MiltonKeynesMK76AA~t. Britai~
ABSTRACT
Two bodies of knowledge, ( 1 ) the theoretical assumptions informing animal welfare issues and (2) the theories of motivation developed in experimental psychology and ethology, need to be mutually compatible. It is argued that recently accumulated evidence is such that the theory of motivation now needs to be based upon a synthesis of several factors which in the past were often seen as mutually exclusive. First, motivation reflects a goal-seeking system in which a variety of different strategies and motor acts can be employed flexibly to reach a given goal. Obtaining the goal object provides positive reinforcement. However this process is often only revealed in concert with the animal's innate bias towards performing certain species-typical behaviours. In the context of the arousal of a motivational state, the performance of such species-typical behaviour is positively reinforcing and seems to have a beneficial effect on health and welfare. For example, attack seems to be intrinsically reinforcing for rats placed in a stressful situation. However, this is not the same as saying that the source of aggression is intrinsic. Other motivations (e.g. dustbathing in fowl) seem to have an intrinsic source. Such differences between motivational systems seem to reflect functional considerations. The current picture of motivation is therefore a complex one that needs to draw upon a variety of different theoretical orientations.
Motivation Theory and Animal Welfare Issues Towards a Synthesis
FREDERICK TOATES
BiologyD~artmen~TheOpen Universi~ MiltonKeynesMK76AA~t. Britai~
ABSTRACT
Two bodies of knowledge, ( 1 ) the theoretical assumptions informing animal welfare issues and (2) the theories of motivation developed in experimental psychology and ethology, need to be mutually compatible. It is argued that recently accumulated evidence is such that the theory of motivation now needs to be based upon a synthesis of several factors which in the past were often seen as mutually exclusive. First, motivation reflects a goal-seeking system in which a variety of different strategies and motor acts can be employed flexibly to reach a given goal. Obtaining the goal object provides positive reinforcement. However this process is often only revealed in concert with the animal's innate bias towards performing certain species-typical behaviours. In the context of the arousal of a motivational state, the performance of such species-typical behaviour is positively reinforcing and seems to have a beneficial effect on health and welfare. For example, attack seems to be intrinsically reinforcing for rats placed in a stressful situation. However, this is not the same as saying that the source of aggression is intrinsic. Other motivations (e.g. dustbathing in fowl) seem to have an intrinsic source. Such differences between motivational systems seem to reflect functional considerations. The current picture of motivation is therefore a complex one that needs to draw upon a variety of different theoretical orientations.