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Underground bakehouses
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Underground B a k e h o u s e s
tvub~teHealth
UNDERGROUND BAKEHOUSES. ~ BY
FRAI~CIS
J. ALLAN, M.D.,
D.P.H.,
F.R.S.
El)IN.,
Medical Of~cer of Health for the City of SVestminster.
IN view of the provision contained in Section 101 of the Factory and Workshop Act, that after January let, 1904, no "underground bakehouse" may be used unless certified by the district council to be suitable in every respect for such use, it is desirable that the Branches of the Society should meet and decide for their own particular area on some general lines upon which the district councils may be advised to act. The standard adopted will probably vary according to local conditions, but it is of importance that it should be the same for as large an area as possible. Before one can enter into details, it is necessary to consider the definition of the term " underground bakehouse." According to the Act an underground bakehouse is " a bakehouse, any bakingroom of which is so situate that the floor is 3 or more feet below the surface of the footway of the adjoining street, or of the ground adjoining or nearest to the room." A "baking-room is any room used for baking or for any process incidental thereto." It appears to me that some difficulty may arise in determining the exact meaning to be ascribed to the words " t h e ground adjoining or nearest to the room." It may be that the nearest ground is a 2 feet or 8 feet wide area running along the whole or part of the front of the building, and perhaps covered over with glass. That is perhaps an extreme case, but a not unlikely one. Is it to be contended that a bakehouse, the floor of which is not 3 feet below the level of this area, is not an "underground bakehouse " ? The intention of the framers of the Act was surely to secure that underground bakehouses should be properly lighted and ventilated, and if such a bakehouse could escape from the action of the Act the object of the section would be defeated. I have consulted the solicitors of the Westminster City Council on the point, and they agree that the definition is not at all clear ; but I gathered that they would be inclined to fight strongly against such a bakehouse as that I have mentioned being reckoned as not " underground." • The words of the definition are identical with those of Section 96, Subsection 9, of the Public Health (London) Act dealing with underground rooms, and the solicitors inform me * Read at the meeting of the Metropolitan Branch of the Society on March 21st, 1902.
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that no case has been recorded of any dispute having occurred in reference thereto. But underground rooms are required to have areas, whereas nothing is said with regard to them in connection with bakehouses. Dr. John F. J. Sykes, Medical Officer of Health for the Borough of St. Pancras, has handed me a copy of a report by himself on this subject, on which legal opinion was taken by the public health committee of the borough council. Dealing first with "~,~derground rooms," the solicitors say : " The ground ' adjoining or nearest to the room' must, we think, mean ground other than such area, and would include back-garden, or back-yard, or any other neighbouring surface other than such area. " T h e result is that in bur opinion unless the floor of a backroom is more than 8 feet below the surface of the adjoining ground as above defined, it is not an underground room. " Underground Bakehouses.--An underground bakehouse to come within Section 101 of the Factory and Workshops Act, 1901, after January 4th, 1904, must be a room so situate that the surface of the floor is more than 3 feet below the surface of the footway of the adjoining street or of the ground adjoining or nearest to the room. There is no provision for an adjoining area for a bakehouse, and we can only suppose that the surface from which the 8 feet must be measured, where the footway of the adjoining street is not applicable, must be that of the ground physically nearest to the room, on whatever side of it. There seems likely to be uncertainty as to this, but each case will, we think, have to be decided on its own merits." Probably in practice the fact that any room used for baking or any process incidental thereto, which is 3 or more feet below the surface of the nearest ground, will make the whole of a bakehouse " underground "will limit considerably cases where disputes might otherwise arise, as it is not unusual in London to find a vault used for some "process incidental thereto." On the other hand, it may bring into the category of "underground bakehouses" establishments where almost the whole of the processes are conducted above the street level. In this connection will a room used solely as a store for flour in connection with a bakehouse come under the definition "baking-room" ? Coming now to the certificate which is to be granted, I find that " A n underground bakehouse shall not be certified as suitable unless the district council is satisfied that it is suitable as regards construction, light, ventilation, and in all other respec.ts." It must be kept in mind that once this certificate is given, it will ~7
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hold good for many years without being subject to any revision. Considerable care must therefore be exercised. Already several bakers have applied to me to learn if their bakehouses are likely to be certified as suitable, as some were about to renew their leases, while others desired to begin at once to put their establishment into such a condition as would entitle them to the necessary certificate at the beginning of 1904. In order to meet these requests the Westminster Public Health Committee, on my suggestion, have appointed a sub-committee to deal with underground bakehouses. Construction.--The first point mentioned in the Act, to which the attention of district councils has to be given, is the proper construction of the bakehouse. 1. Certain provisions of the Act must be complied with : (a) There must be no water-closet in direct communication with or within the bakehouse. (b) Every cistern supplying water to the bakehouse must be separate from any cistern supplying water-closets. (c) There must be no drain-opening within the bakehouse. To fulfil the first of these conditions, closets are preferably erected in an open yard where an air-space intervenes between them and the bakery. But while theoretically it may be good designing to place closets and urinals away from the bakehouse with a good space between, we are met by the practical difficulty that bakers work in a warm atmosphere, and find it dangerous to freely expose themselves suddenly to cold. Mr. William Jago, F.I.C., who has devoted much attention to bread-making and bakehouse design, points out ~ that if such accommodation be provided too far away, there is the danger of a nuisance being created by the improper use of some other part of the bakery and its surroundings. He therefore suggests a very good arrangement shown in the accompanying diagram in which a door opens, preferably from the stoke-hole or some similar part of the building, into a small yard, with a passage intervening between the closets and the bakehouse. By a proper system of roofing free ventilation is secured, while protection is afforded from rain and cold. It is also desirable that the men should have some place to keep their clothing and to wash in. 2. Height of Bakehouse.--There are some bakehouses in which it is possible for only short men to stand erect. Every bakehouse should in my opinion be not less than 8 feet 6 inches high. 3. The walls should be smooth and impervious. It is not un"A Text-book of the Science and Art of Bread-making," p. 424.
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usual to find them rough and uneven, affording ready lodgment to dust. They can be treated in several ways to render them smooth. The use of glazed bricks for this purpose is becoming quite common. 4. The roof, if of brick, should also be rendered smooth and impervious, but if it consists of wooden flooring of the shop and passages above, then it ought to be properly ceiled. 5. The floor must also be impervious and brought to a smooth surface, to enable it to be cleaned properly. 6. Dough-troughs should be on wheels to enable them to be moved for cleansing purposes. The space beneath the trough often becomes a receptacle for much refuse.
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• 7. Fuel should not be kept or stored in the bakehouse ; neither should refuse of any kind. It seems to be a favourite practice of many bakers to bring in a quantity of fuel and throw it down by the side of the oven, adding to it egg-shells and other waste material, which attracts flies and other insects. Where the firing must be done inside the bakehouse, a proper bin or coal-hole should be provided fo~ the fuel, but no refuse should be allowed to remain in the bakehouse. A much better plan, and one which obviates much dirt and dust in the bakehouse, is to have the stoke. hole at the side or back' of the oven outside the bakehouse, but with a means of access to it. Where possible, also, it is desirable that there should be a separate means of access for taking in fuel and removing ashes and refuse, so as to obviate passing through the bakehouse. 27--2
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8. Where possible electric lighting should be adopted. 9. Ventilation a~d Temperatu~'e.--To ventilate successfully an underground bakehouse is often a matter of some difficulty. Neither the men nor the troughs nor vessels containing the ferments or doughs must be exposed to draughts; but, at the same time, as the work of kneading the dough is heavy, it is essential that there should be a plentiful supply of pure air. My inquiries have led me to the conclusion that what is required is an equable temperature between 60 ° and 65 ° F. This is not too warm for the bakers, and is a good temperature for the dough to rise. At present it is not unusual to find in this class of bakehouse that air may enter through an opening in the stallboard, or through a pavement grating. Frequently they are closed by a window which falls forward, and may be fixed at any required angle. Being at or below the street level, such openings admit dust, street-manure, and general refuse, as well as cold draughts of air. I am of opinion that, as a rule, such street-level openings should be closed, and that air should be brought in by means of a shaft from a higher level, where it is purer and more free from dust. It may be warmed in winter by passing it over or near the oven, and in summer by means of a valve it may be made to discharge into the bakehouse before it reaches the oven, and may even be cooled if desired. Outlets may be made to enter a tube passing alongside the smoke flue, or into special shafts, which may be provided with a fan where necessary. I have had such shafts introduced into several bakehouses with very satisfactory results: a comfortable temperature is maintained with a freedom from draught, so that the men do not stop up or otherwise interfere with the ventilators. 10. Where gas-engines are employed, they should be placed in a separate room, properly ventilated, so that fumes may be carried off, and the workings be protected from flour. 11. Flour Store.--Where possible, this should be over the bakehouse, partly to keep the flour in good condition and partly because having a room overhead assists in the maintenance of an equable temperature in the bakehouse. Svch a room is generally used for mixing, etc., the flour being discharged into the troughs below through hoppers. Frequently, however, the flour-store closely adjoins the bakehouse, and even forms part of it. In such cases a considerable amount of cubic space must be deducted in estimating the number of persons who may be employed. There may be other points which may require consideration-Trot instance, in certain low-lying districts flooding of the bakehouse occurs, and steps should be taken tc prevent this--but those I have:
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submitted may possibly be sufficient to initiate a discussion, and I hope may serve as a basis for some general agreement among Metropotj£an health officers. DISCUSSION. The PRESIDENT said he presumed that Subsection 1 of the Section 101 of ~he rpresent Act, being only a re-enactment of the former provision, an underground bakehouse temporarily closed on the day when the Act was passed would not be deemed to be a bakehouse not kept in conformity with the Act, but would be subject to the decision in Sehweitzerhoff v. Wilkins. He did not see how any hard and fast lines could be drawn with regard to structural conditions which could be made applicable to all bakehouses, because they were subject to appeal, and the magistrate might easily override their requirements. In Southwark they endeavoured to insist on three points: (1) The floors to be of concrete, (2) the walls cemented and faced with glazed bricks up to 4 feet 6 inches, and (3) the troughs on easters. They had a number of low-lying:bakehouses in which they had floodings when they had openings, but he failed to see why there need be any flooding when they had no openings. Dr. J. OR~E DUD~'IELDsaid with regard to the question the President had raised as to the effect of the temporary closing of an underground bakehouse, a case had been heard by the magistrate a few days since who dismissed the summ.ons, holding it to be covered by the decision in Sehweitzerhoff v. Wilkins. He had written to Mr. Henry C. Jones, the solicitor to the Society, who had in reply~aid: "Subsection 1 of Section 101 of the Factory and Workshops Act, 1901, is a re-enactment of Section 27 (3) of the Factory and Workshops Act, 1895, and it was on that particular subsection of that Act that the decision in Sehweitzerhoff v. Wilkins was based ; and the note on that case in ' Redgrave's Factory Acts,' 8th edition, 1902, p. 133, states • ~The view of the Cour~ was that the bakehouse, although not actually in use at the commencement of the Act (in your ease August 17th), was, nevertheless, used as a bakehouse at the commencement of the Act within the meaning of the exception, and that the mere temporary cessation of occupation by a tenant did not take away from the premises the benefit of the exception, and so render the occupier liable for a breach of the provisions of the Act.' . . . I consider your case on all fours with the decision referred to." In his (I)r. Dudfield's) ease, the bakehonse was closed on August 4th, and not re-opened until December 81st, and then, apparently, with a view to opening it before the general Act came into force. He would have thought five months' discontinuance of use would have been sufficient to bring it within the Ac~. The magistrate, however, had offered to state a case on the point. It seemed to him that the whole of Section 101 was directed to securing the ~losure of all unsuitable underground bakehouses. For the most part his experience was they were generally unfit for the purpose. Usually they were front kitchens, with an oven just under the opening. The light was generally from a fan.light, which in the case he had referred to had not been opened for some years. The workman, of course, said he could not possibly have it open, for it was just over the oven, and the draught would kill him. They were often without light at all, and frequently with no ventilation. He hoped the Branch would consider what ought to be the standard. There Ought to be some consensus of opinion on the subject by the authorities in London. The time had come for a very serious reform i n bakehouses. Why could not
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the same care be taken with bakehouses as with slaughter-houses ? They ought to insist on having them practically above ground. They ought to be provided with smooth walls, glazed roofs, etc., so that, if due care was taken, they would not get any accumulation of refuse or insects. Then, in his opinion, bread should not be made by hand. Only a few days ago a man was found who had been making bread for three days with the small-pox rash well out. Men suffering from phthisis, too, with the sweat of phthisis running down into the dough, often worked in the manufacture of bread. H e gathered from Dr. A]lan's remarks that he contemplated that most of these underground bakehouses would remain. They had 140 in Kensington, but he did not think in most cases he could give a certificate. Dr. P. CALDWELLShIITH asked how they were to treat a bakehouse that was underground in the front but not at the back. There was one in his borough which was only one room right through, but in the front was 6 feet underground, and only 2 feet in the back. W a s that an underground bakehouse ? I n some bakehouses there was a tap in the corner with a gully under. It was almost impossible to carry the gully outside. What were they to do with them ? H e could foresee serious trouble for the medical officers of health and the borough councils over this matter. He felt with Dr. Dudfield that he could not certify a good many bakehouses in his borough as suitable: He move d that a sub-committee be appointed to go into the matter, and draw up seriatim a list of necessary requirements. Dr. R. DUDFIELD said the Branch might do more good if it would draw up regulations for a model underground bakehou~e, with sketches, plans, and sections. If they had such regulations by them it would be possible to see how far any individual case would correspond with them, and whether they would be justified in permitting the bakehouse to be used. As to the question raised by Dr. Caldwell Smith, he was afraid most of the bakehouses in Paddington had gullies. H o w to provide for proper surface drainage without he did not know. An accumulation of surface water would do more harm than tame from a properly-trapped gully. With regard to light, he had some which had no natural light; but if electric light was used, no h a r m could arise from vitiated a i r ; besides which, most of the bakehouses were not used in any event until after dark. Dr. WBLLESLSV HARRIS seconded the appointment of a sub-committee on condition that it was not to dr~w up " model regulations for underground bakehouses," but only general requirements. He very strongly deprecated the Branch sending out any " m o d e l " regulations for "underground " bakehouses, because the intention of the Act was eventually to get rid of them altogether, and surely it would be most unwise to issue a " m o d e l . " Dr. B~YETT said, if a bakehouse complied with the provisions set forth in Sections 97 to 100, a magistrate would hold that a certificate must be granted. Dr. Bo~D thought they could hardly go beyond the wording of the Act. I n Section 99 it said, " whether the ceilings and walls are plaster or not." That showed they could not insist on ~hese ceilings and walls being of impervious material. I t is true that was for bakehouses generally, but it was equally applicable to underground bakehouses, for a bakehouse was a bakehouse whether underground or not. With regard ~o ventilation, his experience was that ahnost all underground bakehouses had a fair amount of means of ventfiagon, but when they came to actual practice they found those means were not used. If the magistrate visited they could rely on it the windows would be all open, but from
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their point of view that did not form desirable ventilation. He feared that whatever they might think desirable they would find themselves very little in advance of what they had at present. The PRESIDENTthen put the motion that the sub-committee be appointed, which was agreed to, and the following were appointed to constitute the committee : The l~'esident, Drs. T. O. Dudfield, R. Dudfield, F. J. Allan, A. Wellesley Harris, P. Caldwell Smith, and the Hon. Secretary, Dr. J. Priestley. Dr. AJ~LAN,in reply, said he was of opinion that many underground bakehouses could be made quite sanitary and fit for use, and he found on the par~ of the bakers a desire to bring their bakehouses into such a condition as would satisfy local authorities. He thought there had been rather too much sentimental talk about the condition of underground bakehouses. The worst bakehouses he had ever seen were above ground. He was glad the Branch had appointed a committee to draw up a list of requirements for all bakehouses, and he would like to see these applied also to kitchens of restaurants. On the motion of the PRESIDENT a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Allan for his paper. AN EPIDEMIC OF TYPHOID FEVER DUE TO mILK. HENIE.---In Hamar, a small town in Norway, by the great Lake Mj6sen, typhoid fever was in former times very prevalent. The sanitary conditions were then very bad ; there was no water-supply, so that most of the inhabitants had to take their water from the lake, into which all waste-water, groundwater, and sewage was led. A ~ood supply of water was laid on in 1881, and the outlet of sewage was improved, with the result that the disease disappeared. Since 1882 there have been only one or two (mostly imported) cases yearly, the last occurring in 1896. In June, 1900, an epidemic suddenly broke out, and it was soon evident that the infection was spread fi'om a dairy, where the dairyman and his wife both were ~suffering from the disease. The woman was the first affected, but only slightly, so that she could partly mind the shop. Fifty-three persons in all caught the disease. Of these, forty-two were infected directly by drinking milk obtained from this shop, six by personal infection from other patients, and three by infection mdirectly. I n one case the mode of infection was not made clear. The first patient, the dairyman's wife, had not been in contact with any person suffering from typhoid fever. I n the neighbburhood of the town and on the farms from which the dairy received its milk no cases of the disease were found. I t is, therefore, most likely that the contagion originated from a former epidemic. The premises where the disease first appeared consisted of very old and badly-constructed wooden buildings and sheds, with ~many corners and outhouses where waste and refuse had been lying for years. The premises were always considered among t h e worst in the town on account of their want of cleanliness and insanitary state, and cases of typhoid fever often occurred there in former times. I n May of the year of the epidemic an old cesspool in she courtyard, which had been intact for a very long time, was cleared out. The contents were not carried away, but put in the dust-bin, which was used by the inhabitants, and was left there until June, when the epidemic broke out. The dairyman's wife was then most likely infected through this source.--Tidsskrift for den norske Lageforen~ng, Kristiania, July, 1901.
Underground B a k e h o u s e s
tvub~teHealth
UNDERGROUND BAKEHOUSES. ~ BY
FRAI~CIS
J. ALLAN, M.D.,
D.P.H.,
F.R.S.
El)IN.,
Medical Of~cer of Health for the City of SVestminster.
IN view of the provision contained in Section 101 of the Factory and Workshop Act, that after January let, 1904, no "underground bakehouse" may be used unless certified by the district council to be suitable in every respect for such use, it is desirable that the Branches of the Society should meet and decide for their own particular area on some general lines upon which the district councils may be advised to act. The standard adopted will probably vary according to local conditions, but it is of importance that it should be the same for as large an area as possible. Before one can enter into details, it is necessary to consider the definition of the term " underground bakehouse." According to the Act an underground bakehouse is " a bakehouse, any bakingroom of which is so situate that the floor is 3 or more feet below the surface of the footway of the adjoining street, or of the ground adjoining or nearest to the room." A "baking-room is any room used for baking or for any process incidental thereto." It appears to me that some difficulty may arise in determining the exact meaning to be ascribed to the words " t h e ground adjoining or nearest to the room." It may be that the nearest ground is a 2 feet or 8 feet wide area running along the whole or part of the front of the building, and perhaps covered over with glass. That is perhaps an extreme case, but a not unlikely one. Is it to be contended that a bakehouse, the floor of which is not 3 feet below the level of this area, is not an "underground bakehouse " ? The intention of the framers of the Act was surely to secure that underground bakehouses should be properly lighted and ventilated, and if such a bakehouse could escape from the action of the Act the object of the section would be defeated. I have consulted the solicitors of the Westminster City Council on the point, and they agree that the definition is not at all clear ; but I gathered that they would be inclined to fight strongly against such a bakehouse as that I have mentioned being reckoned as not " underground." • The words of the definition are identical with those of Section 96, Subsection 9, of the Public Health (London) Act dealing with underground rooms, and the solicitors inform me * Read at the meeting of the Metropolitan Branch of the Society on March 21st, 1902.
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that no case has been recorded of any dispute having occurred in reference thereto. But underground rooms are required to have areas, whereas nothing is said with regard to them in connection with bakehouses. Dr. John F. J. Sykes, Medical Officer of Health for the Borough of St. Pancras, has handed me a copy of a report by himself on this subject, on which legal opinion was taken by the public health committee of the borough council. Dealing first with "~,~derground rooms," the solicitors say : " The ground ' adjoining or nearest to the room' must, we think, mean ground other than such area, and would include back-garden, or back-yard, or any other neighbouring surface other than such area. " T h e result is that in bur opinion unless the floor of a backroom is more than 8 feet below the surface of the adjoining ground as above defined, it is not an underground room. " Underground Bakehouses.--An underground bakehouse to come within Section 101 of the Factory and Workshops Act, 1901, after January 4th, 1904, must be a room so situate that the surface of the floor is more than 3 feet below the surface of the footway of the adjoining street or of the ground adjoining or nearest to the room. There is no provision for an adjoining area for a bakehouse, and we can only suppose that the surface from which the 8 feet must be measured, where the footway of the adjoining street is not applicable, must be that of the ground physically nearest to the room, on whatever side of it. There seems likely to be uncertainty as to this, but each case will, we think, have to be decided on its own merits." Probably in practice the fact that any room used for baking or any process incidental thereto, which is 3 or more feet below the surface of the nearest ground, will make the whole of a bakehouse " underground "will limit considerably cases where disputes might otherwise arise, as it is not unusual in London to find a vault used for some "process incidental thereto." On the other hand, it may bring into the category of "underground bakehouses" establishments where almost the whole of the processes are conducted above the street level. In this connection will a room used solely as a store for flour in connection with a bakehouse come under the definition "baking-room" ? Coming now to the certificate which is to be granted, I find that " A n underground bakehouse shall not be certified as suitable unless the district council is satisfied that it is suitable as regards construction, light, ventilation, and in all other respec.ts." It must be kept in mind that once this certificate is given, it will ~7
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hold good for many years without being subject to any revision. Considerable care must therefore be exercised. Already several bakers have applied to me to learn if their bakehouses are likely to be certified as suitable, as some were about to renew their leases, while others desired to begin at once to put their establishment into such a condition as would entitle them to the necessary certificate at the beginning of 1904. In order to meet these requests the Westminster Public Health Committee, on my suggestion, have appointed a sub-committee to deal with underground bakehouses. Construction.--The first point mentioned in the Act, to which the attention of district councils has to be given, is the proper construction of the bakehouse. 1. Certain provisions of the Act must be complied with : (a) There must be no water-closet in direct communication with or within the bakehouse. (b) Every cistern supplying water to the bakehouse must be separate from any cistern supplying water-closets. (c) There must be no drain-opening within the bakehouse. To fulfil the first of these conditions, closets are preferably erected in an open yard where an air-space intervenes between them and the bakery. But while theoretically it may be good designing to place closets and urinals away from the bakehouse with a good space between, we are met by the practical difficulty that bakers work in a warm atmosphere, and find it dangerous to freely expose themselves suddenly to cold. Mr. William Jago, F.I.C., who has devoted much attention to bread-making and bakehouse design, points out ~ that if such accommodation be provided too far away, there is the danger of a nuisance being created by the improper use of some other part of the bakery and its surroundings. He therefore suggests a very good arrangement shown in the accompanying diagram in which a door opens, preferably from the stoke-hole or some similar part of the building, into a small yard, with a passage intervening between the closets and the bakehouse. By a proper system of roofing free ventilation is secured, while protection is afforded from rain and cold. It is also desirable that the men should have some place to keep their clothing and to wash in. 2. Height of Bakehouse.--There are some bakehouses in which it is possible for only short men to stand erect. Every bakehouse should in my opinion be not less than 8 feet 6 inches high. 3. The walls should be smooth and impervious. It is not un"A Text-book of the Science and Art of Bread-making," p. 424.
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usual to find them rough and uneven, affording ready lodgment to dust. They can be treated in several ways to render them smooth. The use of glazed bricks for this purpose is becoming quite common. 4. The roof, if of brick, should also be rendered smooth and impervious, but if it consists of wooden flooring of the shop and passages above, then it ought to be properly ceiled. 5. The floor must also be impervious and brought to a smooth surface, to enable it to be cleaned properly. 6. Dough-troughs should be on wheels to enable them to be moved for cleansing purposes. The space beneath the trough often becomes a receptacle for much refuse.
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• 7. Fuel should not be kept or stored in the bakehouse ; neither should refuse of any kind. It seems to be a favourite practice of many bakers to bring in a quantity of fuel and throw it down by the side of the oven, adding to it egg-shells and other waste material, which attracts flies and other insects. Where the firing must be done inside the bakehouse, a proper bin or coal-hole should be provided fo~ the fuel, but no refuse should be allowed to remain in the bakehouse. A much better plan, and one which obviates much dirt and dust in the bakehouse, is to have the stoke. hole at the side or back' of the oven outside the bakehouse, but with a means of access to it. Where possible, also, it is desirable that there should be a separate means of access for taking in fuel and removing ashes and refuse, so as to obviate passing through the bakehouse. 27--2
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8. Where possible electric lighting should be adopted. 9. Ventilation a~d Temperatu~'e.--To ventilate successfully an underground bakehouse is often a matter of some difficulty. Neither the men nor the troughs nor vessels containing the ferments or doughs must be exposed to draughts; but, at the same time, as the work of kneading the dough is heavy, it is essential that there should be a plentiful supply of pure air. My inquiries have led me to the conclusion that what is required is an equable temperature between 60 ° and 65 ° F. This is not too warm for the bakers, and is a good temperature for the dough to rise. At present it is not unusual to find in this class of bakehouse that air may enter through an opening in the stallboard, or through a pavement grating. Frequently they are closed by a window which falls forward, and may be fixed at any required angle. Being at or below the street level, such openings admit dust, street-manure, and general refuse, as well as cold draughts of air. I am of opinion that, as a rule, such street-level openings should be closed, and that air should be brought in by means of a shaft from a higher level, where it is purer and more free from dust. It may be warmed in winter by passing it over or near the oven, and in summer by means of a valve it may be made to discharge into the bakehouse before it reaches the oven, and may even be cooled if desired. Outlets may be made to enter a tube passing alongside the smoke flue, or into special shafts, which may be provided with a fan where necessary. I have had such shafts introduced into several bakehouses with very satisfactory results: a comfortable temperature is maintained with a freedom from draught, so that the men do not stop up or otherwise interfere with the ventilators. 10. Where gas-engines are employed, they should be placed in a separate room, properly ventilated, so that fumes may be carried off, and the workings be protected from flour. 11. Flour Store.--Where possible, this should be over the bakehouse, partly to keep the flour in good condition and partly because having a room overhead assists in the maintenance of an equable temperature in the bakehouse. Svch a room is generally used for mixing, etc., the flour being discharged into the troughs below through hoppers. Frequently, however, the flour-store closely adjoins the bakehouse, and even forms part of it. In such cases a considerable amount of cubic space must be deducted in estimating the number of persons who may be employed. There may be other points which may require consideration-Trot instance, in certain low-lying districts flooding of the bakehouse occurs, and steps should be taken tc prevent this--but those I have:
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submitted may possibly be sufficient to initiate a discussion, and I hope may serve as a basis for some general agreement among Metropotj£an health officers. DISCUSSION. The PRESIDENT said he presumed that Subsection 1 of the Section 101 of ~he rpresent Act, being only a re-enactment of the former provision, an underground bakehouse temporarily closed on the day when the Act was passed would not be deemed to be a bakehouse not kept in conformity with the Act, but would be subject to the decision in Sehweitzerhoff v. Wilkins. He did not see how any hard and fast lines could be drawn with regard to structural conditions which could be made applicable to all bakehouses, because they were subject to appeal, and the magistrate might easily override their requirements. In Southwark they endeavoured to insist on three points: (1) The floors to be of concrete, (2) the walls cemented and faced with glazed bricks up to 4 feet 6 inches, and (3) the troughs on easters. They had a number of low-lying:bakehouses in which they had floodings when they had openings, but he failed to see why there need be any flooding when they had no openings. Dr. J. OR~E DUD~'IELDsaid with regard to the question the President had raised as to the effect of the temporary closing of an underground bakehouse, a case had been heard by the magistrate a few days since who dismissed the summ.ons, holding it to be covered by the decision in Sehweitzerhoff v. Wilkins. He had written to Mr. Henry C. Jones, the solicitor to the Society, who had in reply~aid: "Subsection 1 of Section 101 of the Factory and Workshops Act, 1901, is a re-enactment of Section 27 (3) of the Factory and Workshops Act, 1895, and it was on that particular subsection of that Act that the decision in Sehweitzerhoff v. Wilkins was based ; and the note on that case in ' Redgrave's Factory Acts,' 8th edition, 1902, p. 133, states • ~The view of the Cour~ was that the bakehouse, although not actually in use at the commencement of the Act (in your ease August 17th), was, nevertheless, used as a bakehouse at the commencement of the Act within the meaning of the exception, and that the mere temporary cessation of occupation by a tenant did not take away from the premises the benefit of the exception, and so render the occupier liable for a breach of the provisions of the Act.' . . . I consider your case on all fours with the decision referred to." In his (I)r. Dudfield's) ease, the bakehonse was closed on August 4th, and not re-opened until December 81st, and then, apparently, with a view to opening it before the general Act came into force. He would have thought five months' discontinuance of use would have been sufficient to bring it within the Ac~. The magistrate, however, had offered to state a case on the point. It seemed to him that the whole of Section 101 was directed to securing the ~losure of all unsuitable underground bakehouses. For the most part his experience was they were generally unfit for the purpose. Usually they were front kitchens, with an oven just under the opening. The light was generally from a fan.light, which in the case he had referred to had not been opened for some years. The workman, of course, said he could not possibly have it open, for it was just over the oven, and the draught would kill him. They were often without light at all, and frequently with no ventilation. He hoped the Branch would consider what ought to be the standard. There Ought to be some consensus of opinion on the subject by the authorities in London. The time had come for a very serious reform i n bakehouses. Why could not
402
Underground B a k e h o u s e s
t~bxic Ee~th
the same care be taken with bakehouses as with slaughter-houses ? They ought to insist on having them practically above ground. They ought to be provided with smooth walls, glazed roofs, etc., so that, if due care was taken, they would not get any accumulation of refuse or insects. Then, in his opinion, bread should not be made by hand. Only a few days ago a man was found who had been making bread for three days with the small-pox rash well out. Men suffering from phthisis, too, with the sweat of phthisis running down into the dough, often worked in the manufacture of bread. H e gathered from Dr. A]lan's remarks that he contemplated that most of these underground bakehouses would remain. They had 140 in Kensington, but he did not think in most cases he could give a certificate. Dr. P. CALDWELLShIITH asked how they were to treat a bakehouse that was underground in the front but not at the back. There was one in his borough which was only one room right through, but in the front was 6 feet underground, and only 2 feet in the back. W a s that an underground bakehouse ? I n some bakehouses there was a tap in the corner with a gully under. It was almost impossible to carry the gully outside. What were they to do with them ? H e could foresee serious trouble for the medical officers of health and the borough councils over this matter. He felt with Dr. Dudfield that he could not certify a good many bakehouses in his borough as suitable: He move d that a sub-committee be appointed to go into the matter, and draw up seriatim a list of necessary requirements. Dr. R. DUDFIELD said the Branch might do more good if it would draw up regulations for a model underground bakehou~e, with sketches, plans, and sections. If they had such regulations by them it would be possible to see how far any individual case would correspond with them, and whether they would be justified in permitting the bakehouse to be used. As to the question raised by Dr. Caldwell Smith, he was afraid most of the bakehouses in Paddington had gullies. H o w to provide for proper surface drainage without he did not know. An accumulation of surface water would do more harm than tame from a properly-trapped gully. With regard to light, he had some which had no natural light; but if electric light was used, no h a r m could arise from vitiated a i r ; besides which, most of the bakehouses were not used in any event until after dark. Dr. WBLLESLSV HARRIS seconded the appointment of a sub-committee on condition that it was not to dr~w up " model regulations for underground bakehouses," but only general requirements. He very strongly deprecated the Branch sending out any " m o d e l " regulations for "underground " bakehouses, because the intention of the Act was eventually to get rid of them altogether, and surely it would be most unwise to issue a " m o d e l . " Dr. B~YETT said, if a bakehouse complied with the provisions set forth in Sections 97 to 100, a magistrate would hold that a certificate must be granted. Dr. Bo~D thought they could hardly go beyond the wording of the Act. I n Section 99 it said, " whether the ceilings and walls are plaster or not." That showed they could not insist on ~hese ceilings and walls being of impervious material. I t is true that was for bakehouses generally, but it was equally applicable to underground bakehouses, for a bakehouse was a bakehouse whether underground or not. With regard ~o ventilation, his experience was that ahnost all underground bakehouses had a fair amount of means of ventfiagon, but when they came to actual practice they found those means were not used. If the magistrate visited they could rely on it the windows would be all open, but from
XprU,Xgo~.J
Underground B a k e h o u s e s
403
their point of view that did not form desirable ventilation. He feared that whatever they might think desirable they would find themselves very little in advance of what they had at present. The PRESIDENTthen put the motion that the sub-committee be appointed, which was agreed to, and the following were appointed to constitute the committee : The l~'esident, Drs. T. O. Dudfield, R. Dudfield, F. J. Allan, A. Wellesley Harris, P. Caldwell Smith, and the Hon. Secretary, Dr. J. Priestley. Dr. AJ~LAN,in reply, said he was of opinion that many underground bakehouses could be made quite sanitary and fit for use, and he found on the par~ of the bakers a desire to bring their bakehouses into such a condition as would satisfy local authorities. He thought there had been rather too much sentimental talk about the condition of underground bakehouses. The worst bakehouses he had ever seen were above ground. He was glad the Branch had appointed a committee to draw up a list of requirements for all bakehouses, and he would like to see these applied also to kitchens of restaurants. On the motion of the PRESIDENT a cordial vote of thanks was accorded to Dr. Allan for his paper. AN EPIDEMIC OF TYPHOID FEVER DUE TO mILK. HENIE.---In Hamar, a small town in Norway, by the great Lake Mj6sen, typhoid fever was in former times very prevalent. The sanitary conditions were then very bad ; there was no water-supply, so that most of the inhabitants had to take their water from the lake, into which all waste-water, groundwater, and sewage was led. A ~ood supply of water was laid on in 1881, and the outlet of sewage was improved, with the result that the disease disappeared. Since 1882 there have been only one or two (mostly imported) cases yearly, the last occurring in 1896. In June, 1900, an epidemic suddenly broke out, and it was soon evident that the infection was spread fi'om a dairy, where the dairyman and his wife both were ~suffering from the disease. The woman was the first affected, but only slightly, so that she could partly mind the shop. Fifty-three persons in all caught the disease. Of these, forty-two were infected directly by drinking milk obtained from this shop, six by personal infection from other patients, and three by infection mdirectly. I n one case the mode of infection was not made clear. The first patient, the dairyman's wife, had not been in contact with any person suffering from typhoid fever. I n the neighbburhood of the town and on the farms from which the dairy received its milk no cases of the disease were found. I t is, therefore, most likely that the contagion originated from a former epidemic. The premises where the disease first appeared consisted of very old and badly-constructed wooden buildings and sheds, with ~many corners and outhouses where waste and refuse had been lying for years. The premises were always considered among t h e worst in the town on account of their want of cleanliness and insanitary state, and cases of typhoid fever often occurred there in former times. I n May of the year of the epidemic an old cesspool in she courtyard, which had been intact for a very long time, was cleared out. The contents were not carried away, but put in the dust-bin, which was used by the inhabitants, and was left there until June, when the epidemic broke out. The dairyman's wife was then most likely infected through this source.--Tidsskrift for den norske Lageforen~ng, Kristiania, July, 1901.