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Advanced bioceramics
Chapter 25
Advanced bioceramics Kiran Suresh Naik Department of Chemistry, P.E.S.’s R.S.N. College of Arts & Science, Farmagudi, Ponda, Goa, India
25.1 Introduction Biomaterials or bioceramics can be defined as “synthetic or natural materials that are used to replace human body parts which are connected intimately to the living tissues” [1] or “A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to take a form which, alone or as part of a complex system, is used to direct, by control of interactions with components of living systems, the course of any therapeutic or diagnostic procedure, in human or veterinary medicine” [2e4]. The definitions are further refined by many authors according to the conceptual ideas and biological performances of ceramic materials [5e7]. Bioceramics have been known and used since 1000 AD, when plaster of Paris (calcium sulfate) was widely used for setting broken bones [7]. Due to exponential growth in population, demand for biomaterials is intensifying day by day and there is always a need of new discoveries and development of new biomaterials. In the field of medical studies, biologically active drugs as well as materials play a very important role [8]. When it comes to bioceramics, thermal stability, mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and their similarities with bone tissues are the factors that influence their implementation in different applications. Because of their unique properties, bioceramics promote quality of human life and their applications have been extended to the treatment of disorders of human organs. The increase in demand for bioceramics is uncountable and incomparable with respect to other medical treatments. Among the potential value of bioceramics is a huge demand for orthopedic implants. Bioceramics are used in various treatments such as dental fillings, periodontal treatments, joint and limb replacements, craniomaxillofacial reconstruction, artificial arteries and skin substitutes, contact lenses and corneal tissue-engineered scaffolds, bone substitutes, and so on [6,7,9]. This chapter will review classification, applications, and properties of different types of bioceramics.
Advances in Biological Science Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817497-5.00025-2 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
411
412 Advances in Biological Science Research
25.2 Classification of biomaterials The major reason for using ceramics in biomedical applications is because of their biocompatibility. Biocompatibility is the material property that refers to the material’s ability to interact with bone, surrounding tissues, and organs in human body. Based on biocompatibility, the bioceramics are generally classified into three different categories as shown in Fig. 25.1. Bioactive: The biocompatible ceramics that are chemically active and favor bond formation between new bone tissues and the surface of ceramics. These materials have structural similarities with the bone tissues and can be used as a replacement for them. This includes various calcium phosphates, bioactive glasses, and bioactive glass ceramics. Bioactive ceramics have been used to repair and regenerate bone tissues [10,11]. Bioinert: These are the ceramics or materials that do not or only partially react with the surrounding tissues or organs in the human body. These materials are used for biomedical application in the form of supporting media or inert materials. These materials do not interfere with the bone tissues or human organs. As the bioceramics are basically ionic oxides and have strong ionic forces of attraction, they mostly tend to be nontoxic, noncarcinogenic, and nonallergenic. Some of the most common bioinert ceramics are alumina, stainless steel, titanium, zirconia, and alumina-zirconia composite. [6,12]. Bioresorbable: These are the materials that are implanted in the human body, and after implant they react and dissolve with the body fluids and are further metabolized to form new tissues. Generally, tissues are capable of regenerating themselves and need only a temporary support of bioceramic for tissue replacement. Examples of such bioceramics are calcium phosphate and biodegradable polymers. These materials are used only when temporary support is required for tissue growth (e.g., artificial skin, cartilage repair,
FIGURE 25.1 Classification of bioceramics.
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FIGURE 25.2 Applications of bioceramics in human body.
peripheral nerve repair) and not in the case where permanent implant is required (e.g., artificial heart, kidney, and liver) [13,14] (Fig. 25.2).
25.3 Applications and properties of bioceramics 25.3.1 Hydroxyapatite Hydroxyapatite (HA) is one type of calcium phosphate ceramic ranked in the category of bioactive ceramics. It crystallizes into a hexagonal dipyramidal structure with a molecular formula of Ca5(PO4)3OH [15]. The most important criterion of HA is the atomic ratio of calcium to phosphate (1.67); slight deviation in this Ca/P ratio destabilizes the crystal structure, which in turn affects the physical and chemical properties of HA [11]. Synthesis of HA is reported in many different ways. The most common method of synthesis is by wet precipitation method [16], where phosphate solution (H3PO4 or (NH4)2HPO4) is added dropwise to the aqueous suspension of calcium (Ca(OH)2) or (Ca(NO3)2) at pH w11 maintained by addition NH4OH or NaOH [11]. From the 20th century onwards, HA has been reported to be used as bone filler for reconstruction of defected bone [17]. HA can also be used in the form of heterogeneous catalyst; the replacement of Caþ2 sites with divalent or trivalent cations leads to improved catalytic activity [15]. It has also been observed that Cu2þ, Zn2þ, and Agþ substituted HA show antimicrobial effect [18]. HA is known to be highly bioactive but its weaker mechanical strength
414 Advances in Biological Science Research
constrains its use as a bioceramic. However, a composite of HA with bioinert ceramics has increased its mechanical strength. It was recently reported that the composite of HA and yttrium-stabilized zirconia can be used as a replacement for dentin substitutes for dental purposes [19].
25.3.2 b-Tricalcium phosphate (b-TCP) Among the tricalcium phosphate family, b-TCP is widely used as bioresorbable ceramic for biomedical application. It has stoichiometric formula of Ca3(PO4)2 with Ca/P molar ratio of 1.5 and crystalizes into rhombohedral crystal structure [11]. b-TCP is a stable phase at lower temperature and transforms into a-TCP at a temperature of w1125 C [20]. Of the two phases, b-TCP has wider use in tissue engineering applications. The synthesis of b-TCP follows a similar procedure as that of HA. The powder prepared by such methods as solid-state reaction, precipitation method, or by some other method is used to make granules or scaffolds. Higher temperatures destabilized the structure, while doping with cations (e.g., Mg, Sr) enhanced the stability and sintering characteristic of b-TCP [20]. It is used as absorbable material for developing tissue engineering scaffolds [21e23]. However, composite of b-TCP/HA enhances the biocompatibility and biodegradation properties of HA [24].
25.3.3 Alumina (Al2O3) Alumina falls into the category of bioinert ceramics, with a corundum crystal structure. It has unique mechanical and thermal properties because of the strong ionic and covalent bond between Alþ3 and O2 ions [10,12]. Various methods for synthesis of alumina have been reported, and mechanical strength of alumina has a direct relation with grain size and porosity [6]. So synthesis plays a very important role in the preparation of nano-alumina bioceramic. The bioinert nature of alumina makes it suitable for dental and orthopedic applications. In addition to this, alumina is also used as porous spacer, coatings for femoral stems ,and for hip prostheses [6].
25.3.4 Zirconia Zirconia exists in three different forms of cubic, monoclinic, and tetragonal. Zirconia is stabilized to tetragonal or cubic form by doping oxides of calcium, yttrium, magnesium, etc. [25]. It comes into a family of bioinert ceramics, with excellent biocompatibility. In addition, zirconia has a high affinity for bone tissues and lacks any potential oncogenic effect. One more important feature is that it serves as a nucleation site for the development of calcium phosphate ceramics [26]. The use of zirconia is observed in hip joint replacement and also in dental applications. Addition of HA to the zirconia
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415
matrix (zirconia/HA composite) enhances the bioactivity and corrosive resistance of zirconia [25].
25.3.5 Bioglass and glass ceramics Bioglass is composed of silicon oxide, Na2O, K2O, CaO, and MgO, and its biological properties are determined by the composition of bioglass. The concentration of silica classifies bioglass into different categories. For bioactive glass ceramics, the silica content is between 40% and 60%, whereas in bioinert glass ceramics, the silica content is >60% [10]. Bioactive glasses can be processed into microspheres, fibers, and porous implants. It can be also used in the form of a composite with hydroxyapatite. Because of attractive mechanical and thermal stability, glass ceramics are suitable for the orthopedic applications. Bioglass favors the formation of new bone by the deposition of calcium and phosphorous, which enables its use in bone grafting, reconstruction, and as a scaffold in tissue engineering [10].
25.4 Conclusion and future perspectives Bioceramics display outstanding contributions in the field of bone implantation and tissue engineering. Based on their biocompatibility, bioceramics are classified into bioactive, bioinert, and bioresorbable materials and are utilized in different medical applications. Recently, it was found that bioresorbable ceramics have immense potential in the field of biomedical applications. They act as supports and drive the normal tissue growth mechanism and also undergo decomposition after its use. Most of these bioceramics are in an early stage of development and need further experimental investigation. Future research should focus on fabrication of new types of bioceramics that can have healing effects on the surrounding tissue at the implant site as well as assisting in bone regeneration. A possible approach in creating such bioceramics is by doping them with certain biomaterials capable of boosting their properties as well as biocompatibility. Recent use of bioactive ceramics and bioglasses demonstrated promising impact on bone regeneration, healing, and regeneration of soft and hard tissues. This area needs to be focused on, with further systematic analysis. The strength of bioceramics is the next important criteria. In the application of tissue engineering, mixtures of organic and inorganic biocomposites have ability to increase the mechanical strength in biomaterials, and this offers a compelling challenge for future research work.
Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge Dr. Shambhu S. Parab and Ms. Vijayashri R. Naik for their helpful suggestions while writing this chapter.
416 Advances in Biological Science Research
References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
[14]
[15] [16]
[17] [18] [19]
[20] [21] [22]
Grainger DW. The Williams dictionary of biomaterials. Mater Today 1999;2(3):29. Williams DF. On the nature of biomaterials. Biomaterials 2009;30(30):5897e909. Williams DF. On the mechanisms of biocompatibility. Biomaterials 2008;29(20):2941e53. Williams DF. Definitions in biomaterials: proceedings of a consensus conference of the European Society for Biomaterials. 1987. Peppas NA, Langer R. New challenges in biomaterials. Mater Sci 1994;263:1715e20. Shanmugam K, Sahadevan R. BioceramicseAn introductory overview. In: Fundamental biomaterials: ceramics. Elsevier Ltd.; 2018. p. 1e46. Baino F, Vitale-Brovarone C. Bioceramics in ophthalmology. Acta Biomater 2014;10(8):3372e97. Ro¨del M, Meininger S, Groll J, Gbureck U. Bioceramics as drug delivery systems. In: Fundamental biomaterials: ceramics. Elsevier Ltd.; 2018. p. 153e94. Dorozhkin SV. Calcium orthophosphate bioceramics. Eurasian Chem J 2010;12(3e4):247e58. Mala R, Ruby Celsia AS. Bioceramics in orthopaedics: a review. In: Fundamental biomaterials: ceramics. Elsevier Ltd.; 2018. p. 195e221. El-Ghannam A, Ducheyne P. 1.9 bioactive ceramics. In: Comprehensive biomaterials II. Elsevier; 2017. p. 204e34. Pezzotti G. Bioceramics are not bioinert. Mater Today 2017;20(8):395e8. Pertici G. Introduction to bioresorbable polymers for biomedical applications. In: Bioresorbable polymers for biomedical applications: from fundamentals to translational medicine. Elsevier Ltd; 2016. p. 3e29. Kanno T, Sukegawa S, Furuki Y, Nariai Y, Sekine J. Overview of innovative advances in bioresorbable plate systems for oral and maxillofacial surgery. Jpn Dent Sci Rev 2018;54(3):127e38. Fihri A, Len C, Varma RS, Solhy A. Hydroxyapatite: a review of syntheses, structure and applications in heterogeneous catalysis. Coord Chem Rev 2017;347:48e76. Aal NA, Bououdina M, Hajry A, Chaudhry AA, Darr JA, Al-ghamdi AA, et al. Synthesis, characterization and electrical properties of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles from utilization of biowaste eggshells. Biomater Res 2011;15:52e9. Oonishi H. Orthopaedic applications of hydroxyapatite. Biomaterials March 1991;12(2):171e8. Karthika A. Aliovalent ions substituted hydroxyapatite coating on titanium for improved medical applications. Mater Today Proc 2018;5(2):8768e74. Ayoub G, Veljovic D, Zebic ML, Miletic V, Palcevskis E, Petrovic R, et al. Composite nanostructured hydroxyapatite/yttrium stabilized zirconia dental inserts e the processing and application as dentin substitutes. Ceram Int 2018;44(15). 1e9. Rahaman MN. Bioactive ceramics and glasses for tissue engineering. In: Tissue engineering using ceramics and polymers. 2nd ed. 2014. p. 67e114. Shi YZ, Liu J, Yu L, Zhong LZ, Jiang HB. b-TCP scaffold coated with PCL as biodegradable materials for dental applications. Ceram Int 2018;44(13):15086e91. Maji K, Dasgupta S, Pramanik K, Bissoyi A. Preparation and characterization of gelatinchitosan-nanob-TCP based scaffold for orthopaedic application. Mater Sci Eng C 2018;86:83e94. Elsevier.
Advanced bioceramics Chapter | 25 [23]
[24] [25] [26]
417
Tanaka T, Komaki H, Chazono M, Kitasato S, Kakuta A, Akiyama S, et al. Recherche fondamentale et application clinique du beˆta-tricalcium phosphate (b-TCP). Morphologie 2017;101(334):164e72. Pillai RS, Frasnelli M, Sglavo VM. HA/b-TCP plasma sprayed coatings on Ti substrate for biomedical applications. Ceram Int 2018;44(2):1328e33. Soon G, Pingguan-Murphy B, Lai KW, Akbar SA. Review of zirconia-based bioceramic: surface modification and cellular response. Ceram Int 2016;42(11):12543e55. Stefanic M, Kosmac T. b-TCP coatings on zirconia bioceramics: the importance of heating temperature on the bond strength and the substrate/coating interface. J Eur Ceram Soc 2018;38(15):5264e9.
Advanced bioceramics Kiran Suresh Naik Department of Chemistry, P.E.S.’s R.S.N. College of Arts & Science, Farmagudi, Ponda, Goa, India
25.1 Introduction Biomaterials or bioceramics can be defined as “synthetic or natural materials that are used to replace human body parts which are connected intimately to the living tissues” [1] or “A biomaterial is a substance that has been engineered to take a form which, alone or as part of a complex system, is used to direct, by control of interactions with components of living systems, the course of any therapeutic or diagnostic procedure, in human or veterinary medicine” [2e4]. The definitions are further refined by many authors according to the conceptual ideas and biological performances of ceramic materials [5e7]. Bioceramics have been known and used since 1000 AD, when plaster of Paris (calcium sulfate) was widely used for setting broken bones [7]. Due to exponential growth in population, demand for biomaterials is intensifying day by day and there is always a need of new discoveries and development of new biomaterials. In the field of medical studies, biologically active drugs as well as materials play a very important role [8]. When it comes to bioceramics, thermal stability, mechanical strength, biocompatibility, and their similarities with bone tissues are the factors that influence their implementation in different applications. Because of their unique properties, bioceramics promote quality of human life and their applications have been extended to the treatment of disorders of human organs. The increase in demand for bioceramics is uncountable and incomparable with respect to other medical treatments. Among the potential value of bioceramics is a huge demand for orthopedic implants. Bioceramics are used in various treatments such as dental fillings, periodontal treatments, joint and limb replacements, craniomaxillofacial reconstruction, artificial arteries and skin substitutes, contact lenses and corneal tissue-engineered scaffolds, bone substitutes, and so on [6,7,9]. This chapter will review classification, applications, and properties of different types of bioceramics.
Advances in Biological Science Research. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817497-5.00025-2 Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
411
412 Advances in Biological Science Research
25.2 Classification of biomaterials The major reason for using ceramics in biomedical applications is because of their biocompatibility. Biocompatibility is the material property that refers to the material’s ability to interact with bone, surrounding tissues, and organs in human body. Based on biocompatibility, the bioceramics are generally classified into three different categories as shown in Fig. 25.1. Bioactive: The biocompatible ceramics that are chemically active and favor bond formation between new bone tissues and the surface of ceramics. These materials have structural similarities with the bone tissues and can be used as a replacement for them. This includes various calcium phosphates, bioactive glasses, and bioactive glass ceramics. Bioactive ceramics have been used to repair and regenerate bone tissues [10,11]. Bioinert: These are the ceramics or materials that do not or only partially react with the surrounding tissues or organs in the human body. These materials are used for biomedical application in the form of supporting media or inert materials. These materials do not interfere with the bone tissues or human organs. As the bioceramics are basically ionic oxides and have strong ionic forces of attraction, they mostly tend to be nontoxic, noncarcinogenic, and nonallergenic. Some of the most common bioinert ceramics are alumina, stainless steel, titanium, zirconia, and alumina-zirconia composite. [6,12]. Bioresorbable: These are the materials that are implanted in the human body, and after implant they react and dissolve with the body fluids and are further metabolized to form new tissues. Generally, tissues are capable of regenerating themselves and need only a temporary support of bioceramic for tissue replacement. Examples of such bioceramics are calcium phosphate and biodegradable polymers. These materials are used only when temporary support is required for tissue growth (e.g., artificial skin, cartilage repair,
FIGURE 25.1 Classification of bioceramics.
Advanced bioceramics Chapter | 25
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FIGURE 25.2 Applications of bioceramics in human body.
peripheral nerve repair) and not in the case where permanent implant is required (e.g., artificial heart, kidney, and liver) [13,14] (Fig. 25.2).
25.3 Applications and properties of bioceramics 25.3.1 Hydroxyapatite Hydroxyapatite (HA) is one type of calcium phosphate ceramic ranked in the category of bioactive ceramics. It crystallizes into a hexagonal dipyramidal structure with a molecular formula of Ca5(PO4)3OH [15]. The most important criterion of HA is the atomic ratio of calcium to phosphate (1.67); slight deviation in this Ca/P ratio destabilizes the crystal structure, which in turn affects the physical and chemical properties of HA [11]. Synthesis of HA is reported in many different ways. The most common method of synthesis is by wet precipitation method [16], where phosphate solution (H3PO4 or (NH4)2HPO4) is added dropwise to the aqueous suspension of calcium (Ca(OH)2) or (Ca(NO3)2) at pH w11 maintained by addition NH4OH or NaOH [11]. From the 20th century onwards, HA has been reported to be used as bone filler for reconstruction of defected bone [17]. HA can also be used in the form of heterogeneous catalyst; the replacement of Caþ2 sites with divalent or trivalent cations leads to improved catalytic activity [15]. It has also been observed that Cu2þ, Zn2þ, and Agþ substituted HA show antimicrobial effect [18]. HA is known to be highly bioactive but its weaker mechanical strength
414 Advances in Biological Science Research
constrains its use as a bioceramic. However, a composite of HA with bioinert ceramics has increased its mechanical strength. It was recently reported that the composite of HA and yttrium-stabilized zirconia can be used as a replacement for dentin substitutes for dental purposes [19].
25.3.2 b-Tricalcium phosphate (b-TCP) Among the tricalcium phosphate family, b-TCP is widely used as bioresorbable ceramic for biomedical application. It has stoichiometric formula of Ca3(PO4)2 with Ca/P molar ratio of 1.5 and crystalizes into rhombohedral crystal structure [11]. b-TCP is a stable phase at lower temperature and transforms into a-TCP at a temperature of w1125 C [20]. Of the two phases, b-TCP has wider use in tissue engineering applications. The synthesis of b-TCP follows a similar procedure as that of HA. The powder prepared by such methods as solid-state reaction, precipitation method, or by some other method is used to make granules or scaffolds. Higher temperatures destabilized the structure, while doping with cations (e.g., Mg, Sr) enhanced the stability and sintering characteristic of b-TCP [20]. It is used as absorbable material for developing tissue engineering scaffolds [21e23]. However, composite of b-TCP/HA enhances the biocompatibility and biodegradation properties of HA [24].
25.3.3 Alumina (Al2O3) Alumina falls into the category of bioinert ceramics, with a corundum crystal structure. It has unique mechanical and thermal properties because of the strong ionic and covalent bond between Alþ3 and O2 ions [10,12]. Various methods for synthesis of alumina have been reported, and mechanical strength of alumina has a direct relation with grain size and porosity [6]. So synthesis plays a very important role in the preparation of nano-alumina bioceramic. The bioinert nature of alumina makes it suitable for dental and orthopedic applications. In addition to this, alumina is also used as porous spacer, coatings for femoral stems ,and for hip prostheses [6].
25.3.4 Zirconia Zirconia exists in three different forms of cubic, monoclinic, and tetragonal. Zirconia is stabilized to tetragonal or cubic form by doping oxides of calcium, yttrium, magnesium, etc. [25]. It comes into a family of bioinert ceramics, with excellent biocompatibility. In addition, zirconia has a high affinity for bone tissues and lacks any potential oncogenic effect. One more important feature is that it serves as a nucleation site for the development of calcium phosphate ceramics [26]. The use of zirconia is observed in hip joint replacement and also in dental applications. Addition of HA to the zirconia
Advanced bioceramics Chapter | 25
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matrix (zirconia/HA composite) enhances the bioactivity and corrosive resistance of zirconia [25].
25.3.5 Bioglass and glass ceramics Bioglass is composed of silicon oxide, Na2O, K2O, CaO, and MgO, and its biological properties are determined by the composition of bioglass. The concentration of silica classifies bioglass into different categories. For bioactive glass ceramics, the silica content is between 40% and 60%, whereas in bioinert glass ceramics, the silica content is >60% [10]. Bioactive glasses can be processed into microspheres, fibers, and porous implants. It can be also used in the form of a composite with hydroxyapatite. Because of attractive mechanical and thermal stability, glass ceramics are suitable for the orthopedic applications. Bioglass favors the formation of new bone by the deposition of calcium and phosphorous, which enables its use in bone grafting, reconstruction, and as a scaffold in tissue engineering [10].
25.4 Conclusion and future perspectives Bioceramics display outstanding contributions in the field of bone implantation and tissue engineering. Based on their biocompatibility, bioceramics are classified into bioactive, bioinert, and bioresorbable materials and are utilized in different medical applications. Recently, it was found that bioresorbable ceramics have immense potential in the field of biomedical applications. They act as supports and drive the normal tissue growth mechanism and also undergo decomposition after its use. Most of these bioceramics are in an early stage of development and need further experimental investigation. Future research should focus on fabrication of new types of bioceramics that can have healing effects on the surrounding tissue at the implant site as well as assisting in bone regeneration. A possible approach in creating such bioceramics is by doping them with certain biomaterials capable of boosting their properties as well as biocompatibility. Recent use of bioactive ceramics and bioglasses demonstrated promising impact on bone regeneration, healing, and regeneration of soft and hard tissues. This area needs to be focused on, with further systematic analysis. The strength of bioceramics is the next important criteria. In the application of tissue engineering, mixtures of organic and inorganic biocomposites have ability to increase the mechanical strength in biomaterials, and this offers a compelling challenge for future research work.
Acknowledgments The author would like to acknowledge Dr. Shambhu S. Parab and Ms. Vijayashri R. Naik for their helpful suggestions while writing this chapter.
416 Advances in Biological Science Research
References [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
[14]
[15] [16]
[17] [18] [19]
[20] [21] [22]
Grainger DW. The Williams dictionary of biomaterials. Mater Today 1999;2(3):29. Williams DF. On the nature of biomaterials. Biomaterials 2009;30(30):5897e909. Williams DF. On the mechanisms of biocompatibility. Biomaterials 2008;29(20):2941e53. Williams DF. Definitions in biomaterials: proceedings of a consensus conference of the European Society for Biomaterials. 1987. Peppas NA, Langer R. New challenges in biomaterials. Mater Sci 1994;263:1715e20. Shanmugam K, Sahadevan R. BioceramicseAn introductory overview. In: Fundamental biomaterials: ceramics. Elsevier Ltd.; 2018. p. 1e46. Baino F, Vitale-Brovarone C. Bioceramics in ophthalmology. Acta Biomater 2014;10(8):3372e97. Ro¨del M, Meininger S, Groll J, Gbureck U. Bioceramics as drug delivery systems. In: Fundamental biomaterials: ceramics. Elsevier Ltd.; 2018. p. 153e94. Dorozhkin SV. Calcium orthophosphate bioceramics. Eurasian Chem J 2010;12(3e4):247e58. Mala R, Ruby Celsia AS. Bioceramics in orthopaedics: a review. In: Fundamental biomaterials: ceramics. Elsevier Ltd.; 2018. p. 195e221. El-Ghannam A, Ducheyne P. 1.9 bioactive ceramics. In: Comprehensive biomaterials II. Elsevier; 2017. p. 204e34. Pezzotti G. Bioceramics are not bioinert. Mater Today 2017;20(8):395e8. Pertici G. Introduction to bioresorbable polymers for biomedical applications. In: Bioresorbable polymers for biomedical applications: from fundamentals to translational medicine. Elsevier Ltd; 2016. p. 3e29. Kanno T, Sukegawa S, Furuki Y, Nariai Y, Sekine J. Overview of innovative advances in bioresorbable plate systems for oral and maxillofacial surgery. Jpn Dent Sci Rev 2018;54(3):127e38. Fihri A, Len C, Varma RS, Solhy A. Hydroxyapatite: a review of syntheses, structure and applications in heterogeneous catalysis. Coord Chem Rev 2017;347:48e76. Aal NA, Bououdina M, Hajry A, Chaudhry AA, Darr JA, Al-ghamdi AA, et al. Synthesis, characterization and electrical properties of hydroxyapatite nanoparticles from utilization of biowaste eggshells. Biomater Res 2011;15:52e9. Oonishi H. Orthopaedic applications of hydroxyapatite. Biomaterials March 1991;12(2):171e8. Karthika A. Aliovalent ions substituted hydroxyapatite coating on titanium for improved medical applications. Mater Today Proc 2018;5(2):8768e74. Ayoub G, Veljovic D, Zebic ML, Miletic V, Palcevskis E, Petrovic R, et al. Composite nanostructured hydroxyapatite/yttrium stabilized zirconia dental inserts e the processing and application as dentin substitutes. Ceram Int 2018;44(15). 1e9. Rahaman MN. Bioactive ceramics and glasses for tissue engineering. In: Tissue engineering using ceramics and polymers. 2nd ed. 2014. p. 67e114. Shi YZ, Liu J, Yu L, Zhong LZ, Jiang HB. b-TCP scaffold coated with PCL as biodegradable materials for dental applications. Ceram Int 2018;44(13):15086e91. Maji K, Dasgupta S, Pramanik K, Bissoyi A. Preparation and characterization of gelatinchitosan-nanob-TCP based scaffold for orthopaedic application. Mater Sci Eng C 2018;86:83e94. Elsevier.
Advanced bioceramics Chapter | 25 [23]
[24] [25] [26]
417
Tanaka T, Komaki H, Chazono M, Kitasato S, Kakuta A, Akiyama S, et al. Recherche fondamentale et application clinique du beˆta-tricalcium phosphate (b-TCP). Morphologie 2017;101(334):164e72. Pillai RS, Frasnelli M, Sglavo VM. HA/b-TCP plasma sprayed coatings on Ti substrate for biomedical applications. Ceram Int 2018;44(2):1328e33. Soon G, Pingguan-Murphy B, Lai KW, Akbar SA. Review of zirconia-based bioceramic: surface modification and cellular response. Ceram Int 2016;42(11):12543e55. Stefanic M, Kosmac T. b-TCP coatings on zirconia bioceramics: the importance of heating temperature on the bond strength and the substrate/coating interface. J Eur Ceram Soc 2018;38(15):5264e9.