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REVIEWS C o m p u t e r - A s s i s t e d I n s t r u c t i o n : A Book of Readings, ed. R i c h a r d C. A t k i n s o n and H. A. Wilson. 14ew York: A c a d e m i c Press, 1969. Paper. Pp. 362 Computer-Assisted Instruction overall provides a good i n s i g h t into w h a t c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d i n s t r u c t i o n (CAI) inv o l v e s and s h o u l d e n l i g h t e n r e a d e r s as to the r e l e v a n c e of this k i n d of t e a c h i n g to their own fields of c o m p e t e n c y , a l t h o u g h the b o o k is u n e v e n and r e p e t i t i v e , a t y p i c a l d e f e c t of a w o r k c o n s i s t i n g of many p a p e r s l i g h t l y edited. The a p p r o a c h d e s c r i b e d is s t i l l b e i n g d e v e l o p e d as an e d u c a t i o n a l tool, but it is by no m e a n s w i d e l y a c c e p t e d . It is t h e r e f o r e h e l p f u l to h a v e a c o l l e c t i o n of e s s a y s c o v e r i n g p r o g r a m s in e l e m e n t a r y and h i g h s c h o o l s as w e l l as in colleges. B a s i c a l l y two types of CAI p r o g r a m s are d e s c r i b e d : r e s p o n s e - i n s e n s i t i v e p r o g r a m s , such as d r i l l and p r a c t i c e ; and r e s p o n s e - s e n s i t i v e p r o g r a m s , in w h i c h the next q u e s t i o n d e p e n d s on h o w the s t u d e n t r e s p o n d e d to the p r e v i o u s query. It is made clear that a g o o d u n d e r s t a n d i n g of the l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s is i n d i s p e n s a b l e for this s e c o n d type of p r o g r a m . F o r e x a m p l e , L a w r e n c e M. S t o l u r o w p r e s e n t s m o d e l s of the l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s e s and d i s c u s s e s the n e c e s s i t y of r e s o l v i n g such p r o b l e m s as the r e t e n t i o n span of s t u d e n t s for d i f f e r ent types of q u e s t i o n s , the m o s t e f f i c i e n t r e i n f o r c e m e n t t e c h n i q u e s and how to m a t c h s t r a t e g y to s t u d e n t a b i l i t i e s . This is e x p e n s i v e i n s t r u c t i o n . T y p i c a l l y , one hour of p r o g r a m r e q u i r e s one h u n d r e d hours of p r e p a r a t i o n time. But the e x p e n s e is j u s t i f i e d if the f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t b e s t s e r v e s the l e a r n i n g process. The b o o k is d i v i d e d into f o u r sections. The first p a r t p r e s e n t s the g e n e r a l a s p e c t s of the t e c h n i q u e . The first p a p e r gives a g e n e r a l i n t r o d u c t i o n of the p r i n c i p l e s and h a r d w a r e , but fails to e x p l a i n some of the t e c h n i c a l terms for n e o p h y t e s . The f l o w d i a g r a m on p. ii is a clear illustration of the logic i n c o r p o r a t e d in s i m p l e p r o g r a m s . T h i s s e c t i o n p o i n t s out such a d v a n t a g e s as the p o s s i b i l i t y of s e l f - p a c e d t e a c h i n g and s u c h c h a l l e n g e s as w r i t i n g p r o g r a m s v e r s a t i l e e n o u g h to r e c o g n i z e c o r r e c t logic in a r e s p o n s e w h i l e d i s r e g a r d i n g s p e l l i n g errors. One i n c l u d e d p a p e r " S h a p i n g the Mind: C o m p u t e r s in E d u c a t i o n " o f f e r s a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n of the r o l e of c o m p u t e r s in society, b u t is out of p l a c e in this p a r t i c u l a r c o l l e c t i o n of essays. The s e c o n d s e c t i o n c o v e r s a p p l i c a t i o n s of CAI in the science~ and h u m a n i t i e s w i t h s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e s of h a r d w a r e . W h i l e the a r t i c l e by R.J. S e i d e l and F.F. K o p s t e i n is not p a r t i c u l a r l y helpful, those by L.M. S t o l u r o w and W.W. C o o l e y and R. G l a s e r are. P a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l is the p a p e r "An I n f o r m a tion and M a n a g e m e n t S y s t e m for I n d i v i d u a l l y P r e s c r i b e d In-

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s t r u c t i o n " w h i c h p r e s e n t s d i f f e r e n t e x a m p l e s of s y s t e m s and s t r a t e g i e s used, w i t h d i s c u s s i o n of some of the objectives sought. The third s e c t i o n gives s p e c i f i c e x a m p l e s of CAI. "Comp u t e r i z e d I n s t r u c t i o n and the L e a r n i n g Process" offers a v a l u a b l e a c c o u n t of u s i n g CAI to teach c h i l d r e n how to read. " C o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h a C o m p u t e r as a T e c h n i q u e of L a n g u a g e I n s t r u c t i o n " is the m o s t r e l e v a n t p a p e r for r e a d e r s of System. It o f f e r s a d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n of how the s y s t e m w o r k s and h o w to p r e p a r e a l a n g u a g e c o u r s e that includes CAI as part of the l e a r n i n g process. (It a p p e a r s that m a c h i n e s are not yet v e r y g o o d at s p e e c h r e c o g n i t i o n . N e i t h e r are students, and as an aside I w o u l d q u e r y the d e s i r a b i b i l y of h a v i n g a s t u d e n t e v a l u a t e the c o r r e c t n e s s of his own p r o n u n c i a t i o n as was r e q u i r e d in this program.) "Pilot Study of a CAI L a b o r a t o r y in G e r m a n " gives a d e t a i l e d c o m p a r i s o n of s t u d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t s in l e a r n i n g by CAI and t r a d i t i o n a l t e a c h i n g methods. The e v a l u a t i o n r e v e a l s that the CAI s t u d e n t s s c o r e d h i g h e r for the first s e m e s t e r , but that this had l e v e l l e d off by the end of the s e c o n d s e m e s t e r U n f o r t u n a t e l y , we are left to w o n d e r why, and w h e t h e r perhaps the i n i t i a l s t i m u l u s of a new m e t h o d and the e x t r a a t t e n t i o n t h a t the CAI s t u d e n t s c o n s e q u e n t l y r e c e i v e d did not p r o v i d e g r e a t e r e a r l y m o t i v a t i o n . The s e c t i o n c o n c l u d e s w i t h an e x a m p l e of using CAI to teach spelling, the m o s t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d w a y to use this system, and w i t h d e s c r i p tions of how s e v e r a l s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s in New Y o r k and P h i l a d e l p h i a are now u s i n g CAI. The last s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s h a r d w a r e , c o m p u t e r l a n g u a g e s and costs. The f i r s t paper, " P r o g r a m m i n g C o n v e r s a t i o n a l Use of C o m p u t e r s for I n s t r u c t i o n " , c o n s i s t s of a useful, t h o u g h technical, c o m p a r i s o n of d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e s d e v e l o p e d to h a n d l e CAI. C h a r l e s F r y e ' s p a p e r also p r e s e n t s d i f f e r e n t CAI languages. It w o u l d have b e e n m o r e c o n v e n i e n t for the r e a d e r s had all this i n f o r m a t i o n b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d in one a r t i c l e not two. "A C o m m o n L a n g u a g e for a V a r i e t y of Conv e r s a t i o n a l P r o g r a m m i n g Needs" is c l e a r l y w r i t t e n , as is "WRITEACOURSE: An E d u c a t i o n P r o g r a m m i n g L a n g u a g e " . N e o p h y t e s w i l l find b o t h these a r t i c l e s r e w a r d i n g . T h e last p a p e r in the b o o k d e a l s w i t h the e c o n o m i c s of CAI. CAI r e q u i r e s a m e d i u m sized computer, w h i c h is an e x p e n s i v e i n i t i a l cost, or a m o n t h l y rental. P r e c i s e f i g u r e s q u o t e d are of c o u r s e o u t d a t e d by the time a b o o k a p p e a r s in print, b u t the a u t h o r s e x p l a i n h o w to c a l c u l a t e c o s t per hour. The cost is s e n s i t i v e to h o w the s t u d e n t s i n t e r a c t w i t h the c o m p u t e r , w h e t h e r by t y p e w r i t e r , c a t h o d e ray tube and light pen or by tape r e c o r d e r . The g r e a t e r the n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s u s i n g a c o m p u t e r the lower the c o s t per hour. A f u r t h e r p o i n t m a d e is that as time goes on m a c h i n e service b e c o m e s less e x p e n s i v e and m a n u a l s e r v i c e m o r e e x p e n s i v e

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This trend indicates that it is only a matter CAI to look economically attractive.

of time for

Joan B. Williamson New York

Dakin, Julian, The Langua@e Laboratory and Lan~ua@e Learning. (Longman Handbooks f6r Language Teachers) London: Longman, 1973, Pp. 172 As the title of his book suggests, Dakin wishes to relate the uses of the language laboratory and the nature of language learning. Among the theories that have been put forward in order to explain the language learning process, Dakin clearly leans towards the cognitive, as opposed to the behaviourist approach. In support of the cognitive theory he adduces a great many practical instances and even invites the reader to learn a few structures of an artificial language, Novish, by means of a short programmed course: this should make him aware that learning a foreign language requires the development of strategies. This is the standpoint from which Dakin analyses the possibilities of practising language in the laboratory. (He deals only with the practice of language, since fewer problems are involved in this second phase of language acquisition than in the first, presentation - with the complex problem of understanding - and the third, application - with the problem of free communication.) Dakin distinguishes five ways of practising language in the laboratory: listening practice, drills, comprehension exercises, production exercises, and problem solving exercises. The discussion of the drills is central in Dakin's analysis of the place of the language laboratory in language learning. He tries to show that drills are ineffective not only when they are ill-designed, meaningless (the traditional pattern drills), but even when they are "meaningful" (contextualised, etc.), the reason being that drills do not conform to the process of language learning: in reality, "structure" means a choice, the choice of the appropriate structure. In the drill, however, the structure is debased to the status of an unchanging background noise. Consequently, what the learner practises, is not language at all, but "structurespeech", where meaning is irrelevant. Since the student is unable to find out where a given rule m u s t not be applied, he is unable to formualte the correct rule and he will make false generalisations. The purpose of the drill is not the production of an utterance in accordance with the correct