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Developments in middle school education in Western Europe: Educational problems in a nutshell
DEVELOPMENTS IN MIDDLE SCHOOL EDUCATION IN WESTERN EUROPE: EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS IN A NUTSHELL BERT
P. M. CREEMERS
and JAAP
SCHEERENS
Introduction Different terms are used to indicate school education from grade 7 to 9, such as lower secondary education, comprehensive education, integrated education and sometimes a combination of terms is used, such as “integrierte Gesamtschule” (integrated comprehensive education). The term “integrated education” is not adequate when primary schools have an integrated character, too. The term “comprehensive school” is confusing, when, for example, in Scandinavian countries lower education and primary education are combined in a comprehensive school system (Grundskola, translated in English as comprehensive school). We use the term “middle school” to indicate a school of lower secondary education (grades 7 to 9) for all children, i.e. of all social backgrounds, with different talents and interests. The integrated middle school was first introduced in the United States of America and the Soviet Union about the same time. After World War II all Eastern European countries took over this system in one way or another. Between the two world wars considerable discussion took place about secondary education in Western Europe. After World War II, Sweden was the first country to initiate the development of integrated lower education. Later on, an integrated middle school was introduced in different countries, sometimes almost replacing the different schools for lower secondary education (France, U.K.). Sometimes middle schools were introduced as experimental schools (as in the Netherlands, F.R.G.). Usually, new integrated middle schools had to compete with the traditional school system. Educational reform during the past decades favoured development of middle schools. Today we see the opposite: the development of middle schools is frequently criticized. Most of the states of the German Federal Republic have terminated the experimental programme. In Great Britain the conservative government proposed no further development of the comprehensive school. And other examples could be given. In the educational debates over the past few years a connection was made between several problems and the development of the middle school. Some of these particularly concerned the middle school, but most of them were general educational problems. In the following 457
458
t3. P. M. CREEMERS
and J. SCHEERENS
discussion we give a brief overview of these problems. in more depth in various chapters of this issue.
The Effects of Structural
Particular
topics will be dealt with
Change
In the traditional school system of secondary education, lower secondary education came under fire. It was criticized with respect to the provision of opportunity for all children. The traditioIla1 school system was highly selective and thought to be generally unfair to different cultures in a society. lnitially~ educational reform was based on the idea that “equal chances” could be provided to different groups and cultures, such as girls, cultural min(~rities, and various socio-e~~~ornic classes. Alternative solutions for the segmente~l educational school system were proposed: on the one hand a school system that still contains different schools but provides easy transiti from one school to another, and on the other hand a lacking outer differentiation but nl~lintaining inner completely integrated system, differentiati(~n, or even in a stricter form, an integrated system having only heterogeneous grouping. In some countries, e.g. Great Britain, two systems exist: the integrated middle school and the ordinary differentiated school system. The same is the case in the countries where only experimental middle schools exist alongside the ordinary school system. In these cases a comparison can be made between the effects of the ordinary school system and the middle school and integrated middle schools. In this comparison various criteria can be used such as students’ outcomes, students’ interest. students’ and teachers’ attitudes, etc. But another measure of the effectiveness of middle school is the growing participation of individuals representing different cultures, in contrast with the traditional school system. In some countries alternative forms of differentiation were developed. This provides us with the opportunity of comparing different forms of internal differentiation with respect to outcomes (this comparison, for example, can be made in the F.R.G. and the Netherlands). Another way of looking at outcomes of middle school education is through international comparisons, e.g. the findings of the International Association of the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) in which comparisons have been made between traditional and integrated systems. Research in the first half of the 19’7Usshowed satisfying results for integrated systems, but there are indications that more recent findings of negative results for the Western integrated comparative research show pessimistic, educational system. Later sections in this issue concentrate on the outcomes of middle school education. First, a description is given of the development of the middle school in Sweden, F.R.G., Great Britain and the Netherlands. This description is based on research of these developments, but aims not only to describe what is going on but also to state the effects of middle schools in comparison with ordinary school systems in these countries. The outcome effects are specifically related to the goals of middle school education in the different countries. Most of the time there are particular goals related to specific groups within the school, e.g. cultural minorities, girls, lower socio-economic classes. In this connection, alternative forms of differentiation which are sometimes developed within the middle school are discussed, especially the more experimental forms. This issue also considers the outcomes of middle school education based on findings of intern~~tion~~l comparisons, especially IER studies. To answer the question about the
Developments
in Middle School Education
459
effects of middle school education, an analysis of the results of an IEA study in mathematics was made. This makes a comparison between integrated and more structured systems, and between different integrated systems. Furthermore, an analysis of the results of the findings of different countries is carried out in more depth to answer the question: should we blame integrated middle schools for the results or are there other factors which contribute to the recent negative results of Western European education in international evaluation studies?
Reform
of the Curriculum.
Problems
of Schooling
Today
Criticism of the existing school system has resulted in proposals for structural changes to the system. Subsequently, the curriculum for lower secondary education came under fire. Points of criticism were: the integration of different contents, the appropriateness of the curriculum for students, the idea of more homogeneous development and of gearing education more closely to developments in society. In countries where the whole educational structure was changed at an early stage (e.g. Sweden) the curriculum reform took place later on. Where structural change occurred somewhat later, this change was often accompanied by reform of the educational content and the curriculum (F.R.G. and the Netherlands). One of the ideas or goals behind the proposal for changing the curriculum was that discipline problems that occurred in schools and the number of school drop-outs would decrease. The idea was that the curriculum should be changed in such a way that more attention was given to the different talents of students, and especially the different interests of students. New contents such as health education, computer studies and home economics would be included. This led to fundamental changes in the school time-tabling. Even more important were the changes in what was required for examination subjects. We can raise questions about the effects of these curriculum changes on the levels achieved in various subjects. Some of the results shown in the previous chapters can be interpreted as consequences of the curriculum changes. One chapter of this issue deals with curriculum changes and its results.
The Innovation
Process
The development of a system for integrated middle schools is a prime example of a largescale structural educational innovation, involving such elements as development, research, management implementation and so on. Different innovative strategies were used. In centralized countries, such as France and Sweden, innovation was initiated “from above”. In Great Britain and Denmark the establishment of the middle school took place at a regional level. Most of the time the innovation strategy used combined the initial change from a central level with decentralized implementation. It seems that individual schools often took over the job of decision making for innovations in the middle school. One can argue about the effectiveness and efficiency of such a strategy, especially considering whether or not necessary knowledge and capacities for implementing educational reform are available at the school level. Research data are available on how processes such as these evolve. In the chapter dealing with this issue, there is a description of the process of innovation of middle
460
B. P. M. CREEMERS
school education in several countries developments of process-implementation
Middle
and J. SCHEERENS
emphasizing the political background of middle school education.
and
the
School Evaluation
The final chapter considers the political and organizational influences on evaluation. Conclusions are suggested in respect to favourable and unfavourable contextual conditions, as are some changes in evaluation strategies concerning educational reform in middle schools such as the longitudinal assessment combined with small-scale experiences. This issue concludes with a comment on the developments in Western Europe from the point of view of a relative outsider: one observer from the U.S.A., where IEA studies find comparable outcomes to those in Western Europe and one from Japan, which has an integrated school system, but better results than those in Western Europe.
P. M. CREEMERS
and JAAP
SCHEERENS
Introduction Different terms are used to indicate school education from grade 7 to 9, such as lower secondary education, comprehensive education, integrated education and sometimes a combination of terms is used, such as “integrierte Gesamtschule” (integrated comprehensive education). The term “integrated education” is not adequate when primary schools have an integrated character, too. The term “comprehensive school” is confusing, when, for example, in Scandinavian countries lower education and primary education are combined in a comprehensive school system (Grundskola, translated in English as comprehensive school). We use the term “middle school” to indicate a school of lower secondary education (grades 7 to 9) for all children, i.e. of all social backgrounds, with different talents and interests. The integrated middle school was first introduced in the United States of America and the Soviet Union about the same time. After World War II all Eastern European countries took over this system in one way or another. Between the two world wars considerable discussion took place about secondary education in Western Europe. After World War II, Sweden was the first country to initiate the development of integrated lower education. Later on, an integrated middle school was introduced in different countries, sometimes almost replacing the different schools for lower secondary education (France, U.K.). Sometimes middle schools were introduced as experimental schools (as in the Netherlands, F.R.G.). Usually, new integrated middle schools had to compete with the traditional school system. Educational reform during the past decades favoured development of middle schools. Today we see the opposite: the development of middle schools is frequently criticized. Most of the states of the German Federal Republic have terminated the experimental programme. In Great Britain the conservative government proposed no further development of the comprehensive school. And other examples could be given. In the educational debates over the past few years a connection was made between several problems and the development of the middle school. Some of these particularly concerned the middle school, but most of them were general educational problems. In the following 457
458
t3. P. M. CREEMERS
and J. SCHEERENS
discussion we give a brief overview of these problems. in more depth in various chapters of this issue.
The Effects of Structural
Particular
topics will be dealt with
Change
In the traditional school system of secondary education, lower secondary education came under fire. It was criticized with respect to the provision of opportunity for all children. The traditioIla1 school system was highly selective and thought to be generally unfair to different cultures in a society. lnitially~ educational reform was based on the idea that “equal chances” could be provided to different groups and cultures, such as girls, cultural min(~rities, and various socio-e~~~ornic classes. Alternative solutions for the segmente~l educational school system were proposed: on the one hand a school system that still contains different schools but provides easy transiti from one school to another, and on the other hand a lacking outer differentiation but nl~lintaining inner completely integrated system, differentiati(~n, or even in a stricter form, an integrated system having only heterogeneous grouping. In some countries, e.g. Great Britain, two systems exist: the integrated middle school and the ordinary differentiated school system. The same is the case in the countries where only experimental middle schools exist alongside the ordinary school system. In these cases a comparison can be made between the effects of the ordinary school system and the middle school and integrated middle schools. In this comparison various criteria can be used such as students’ outcomes, students’ interest. students’ and teachers’ attitudes, etc. But another measure of the effectiveness of middle school is the growing participation of individuals representing different cultures, in contrast with the traditional school system. In some countries alternative forms of differentiation were developed. This provides us with the opportunity of comparing different forms of internal differentiation with respect to outcomes (this comparison, for example, can be made in the F.R.G. and the Netherlands). Another way of looking at outcomes of middle school education is through international comparisons, e.g. the findings of the International Association of the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) in which comparisons have been made between traditional and integrated systems. Research in the first half of the 19’7Usshowed satisfying results for integrated systems, but there are indications that more recent findings of negative results for the Western integrated comparative research show pessimistic, educational system. Later sections in this issue concentrate on the outcomes of middle school education. First, a description is given of the development of the middle school in Sweden, F.R.G., Great Britain and the Netherlands. This description is based on research of these developments, but aims not only to describe what is going on but also to state the effects of middle schools in comparison with ordinary school systems in these countries. The outcome effects are specifically related to the goals of middle school education in the different countries. Most of the time there are particular goals related to specific groups within the school, e.g. cultural minorities, girls, lower socio-economic classes. In this connection, alternative forms of differentiation which are sometimes developed within the middle school are discussed, especially the more experimental forms. This issue also considers the outcomes of middle school education based on findings of intern~~tion~~l comparisons, especially IER studies. To answer the question about the
Developments
in Middle School Education
459
effects of middle school education, an analysis of the results of an IEA study in mathematics was made. This makes a comparison between integrated and more structured systems, and between different integrated systems. Furthermore, an analysis of the results of the findings of different countries is carried out in more depth to answer the question: should we blame integrated middle schools for the results or are there other factors which contribute to the recent negative results of Western European education in international evaluation studies?
Reform
of the Curriculum.
Problems
of Schooling
Today
Criticism of the existing school system has resulted in proposals for structural changes to the system. Subsequently, the curriculum for lower secondary education came under fire. Points of criticism were: the integration of different contents, the appropriateness of the curriculum for students, the idea of more homogeneous development and of gearing education more closely to developments in society. In countries where the whole educational structure was changed at an early stage (e.g. Sweden) the curriculum reform took place later on. Where structural change occurred somewhat later, this change was often accompanied by reform of the educational content and the curriculum (F.R.G. and the Netherlands). One of the ideas or goals behind the proposal for changing the curriculum was that discipline problems that occurred in schools and the number of school drop-outs would decrease. The idea was that the curriculum should be changed in such a way that more attention was given to the different talents of students, and especially the different interests of students. New contents such as health education, computer studies and home economics would be included. This led to fundamental changes in the school time-tabling. Even more important were the changes in what was required for examination subjects. We can raise questions about the effects of these curriculum changes on the levels achieved in various subjects. Some of the results shown in the previous chapters can be interpreted as consequences of the curriculum changes. One chapter of this issue deals with curriculum changes and its results.
The Innovation
Process
The development of a system for integrated middle schools is a prime example of a largescale structural educational innovation, involving such elements as development, research, management implementation and so on. Different innovative strategies were used. In centralized countries, such as France and Sweden, innovation was initiated “from above”. In Great Britain and Denmark the establishment of the middle school took place at a regional level. Most of the time the innovation strategy used combined the initial change from a central level with decentralized implementation. It seems that individual schools often took over the job of decision making for innovations in the middle school. One can argue about the effectiveness and efficiency of such a strategy, especially considering whether or not necessary knowledge and capacities for implementing educational reform are available at the school level. Research data are available on how processes such as these evolve. In the chapter dealing with this issue, there is a description of the process of innovation of middle
460
B. P. M. CREEMERS
school education in several countries developments of process-implementation
Middle
and J. SCHEERENS
emphasizing the political background of middle school education.
and
the
School Evaluation
The final chapter considers the political and organizational influences on evaluation. Conclusions are suggested in respect to favourable and unfavourable contextual conditions, as are some changes in evaluation strategies concerning educational reform in middle schools such as the longitudinal assessment combined with small-scale experiences. This issue concludes with a comment on the developments in Western Europe from the point of view of a relative outsider: one observer from the U.S.A., where IEA studies find comparable outcomes to those in Western Europe and one from Japan, which has an integrated school system, but better results than those in Western Europe.