Industrial halal meat production and animal welfare: A review

MESC-06982; No of Pages 11 Meat Science xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

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Industrial halal meat production and animal welfare: A review M.M. Farouk a,⁎, K.M. Pufpaff b, M. Amir c a b c

AgResearch Limited, Ruakura Research Centre, Private Bag 3123, Hamilton, New Zealand Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America (IFANCA), 777 Busse Hwy, Park Ridge, IL 60068, USA The Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand (FIANZ), 7-11 Queens Drive, PO Box 14155, Wellington, New Zealand

a r t i c l e

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Article history: Received 22 January 2016 Received in revised form 18 April 2016 Accepted 19 April 2016 Available online xxxx Keywords: Animal welfare Halal slaughter Stunning Empathy test Sentience

a b s t r a c t Islam teaches zero-tolerance to all forms of animal abuse throughout the halal meat production supply chain and demands that when animals are slaughtered, they must be slaughtered in the mindful and attentive way espoused by the Prophet Muhammad. Why then are poor practices and animal welfare abuses still occurring during halal meat production, and how can they be reduced or eliminated? In this review we discuss how improvements might be achieved through: (1) training of staff regarding the religious and regulatory requirements of animal welfare from on-farm to slaughter; (2) empathy and compassion assessment of applicants prior to employment; (3) installation of CCTV cameras around lairage and slaughter sites; (4) regular employee follow-up training to minimise ‘compassion fatigue’; (5) incorporating animal welfare requirements in halal certification; (6) using mosque-based sermons by Imams to increase awareness of animal welfare issues; and (7) making portable humane slaughter units available to small cottage operations and home/neighbourhood-kills through mosquebased organizations/structures. © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction A large volume of red meat is produced using industrial halal methods and traded globally (Farouk, 2013; Farouk et al., 2014). The spiritual quality of this meat is foundationally important for halal consumers (Farouk et al., 2014), and therefore all spiritual aspects must be met including animal welfare standards of the meat production (Aidaros, 2014). The reality however, is that, animal welfare abuses occur throughout the supply chain for both the industrial and “cottage” productions of halal meat. Rahman and Aidaros (2011, 2012) detailed some of these unacceptable practices. They include “cruel” handling of animals before and during transportation. Some animals are herded for several days to slaughter. During this process animals may lose weight and may be beaten unnecessarily. Many animals are also not fed and watered enroute. Animals – young and old, big or small – may be tied in twos and fours in order to reduce the number of animal minders or personnel required for herding. Such tying results in injury and fatigue to the animals. Some animals are beaten and forced to move quickly in order to reach markets and abattoirs on time. Those that fall down may be whipped to force them to rise. Similarly, needless suffering is inflicted on animals that are transported three or four days together in overcrowded, ill-ventilated, trucks, especially in hot, humid weather.

⁎ Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (M.M. Farouk).

Harsh conditions also occur at slaughter plants. Animals may be held in primitive facilities without shade, and animals may be restrained by short tethers. At the point of slaughter, animals are often struck and beaten to make them enter the “slaughter facilities”. These various forms of animal welfare abuses have also been reported to occur in non-halal facilities (Bourguet, Deiss, Tannugi Cohen, & Terlouw, 2011; Grandin, 2010a; 2014; Jarvis, Cockram, & Mcgilp, 1996). Despite the clear guidance and zero tolerance stance of Islam and secular sources, poor practices and animal abuse still happen in the halal and non-halal meat production supply chain. The present review discusses those issues and proffers solutions with emphasis on the industrial production of halal red meat. 2. Animal welfare 2.1. Balancing the relevant points of view Various aspects of modern animal welfare have been discussed in excellently written books and reviews (Gregory, 2007; Mellor, Patterson-Kane, & Stafford, 2009; Grandin, 2010a; Norwood & Lusk, 2011). Fraser (1999) describes how the science and ethics cultures differ in their approaches to animal welfare. Halal meat production must attempt to balance four points of views: ▪ the scientific approach to animal welfare; ▪ the ethic based approach to animal welfare;

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Please cite this article as: Farouk, M.M., et al., Industrial halal meat production and animal welfare: A review, Meat Science (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.04.023

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▪ Islamic dietary laws; and ▪ the Islamic ethic about the role of animals in the world.

Table 1 Islamic perspectives on non-human animal welfare issues and terminologies. Welfare attribute

For the scientific approach to animal welfare, the most accepted representation rests on the Five Freedoms that have grown out of the Brambell Committee Report (Brambell Report, 1965): Freedom (1) from thirst and hunger; (2) from discomfort; (3) from pain, injury, and disease; (4) to express most normal behaviour; and (5) from fear and distress. This approach to considering animal welfare uses largely accepted, externally measureable factors to evaluate animal welfare while avoiding anthropomorphism (Webster, 1994). The method is strong on the physical aspects of welfare such as housing, management and nutrition, but weak on the emotional aspects of animals lives (Carenzi & Verga, 2009). This is because the scientific view of animal welfare has been slower to agree on the nature and even existence of animal emotions — which is encapsulated in the acceptance of animal sentience, a central concern in the ethics based approach. The ethics of animal welfare is not only concerned with giving animals the best life possible but also with carefully examining the relationship between humans and the animals in their care. The ethical view of animal welfare includes human beliefs about their obligations to care for animals and that the physical state of an animal may be less important than how that animal feels about that physical state. The predominant ethical belief in western societies is that it is not acceptable for an animal to experience prolonged or severe pain regardless of positive outcome for humans or even the individual animal. The study of the ethics of animal welfare is vital to our understanding of what status we are willing to give animals and what acceptable treatment of animals is. Without ethics to help form the questions we ask about animal welfare it would be much harder for scientists to know where to start in addressing the concerns of society. So while ethics does not often have the answers in animal welfare it often poses the questions (Fraser, 1999). Regarding dietary laws in Islam, Muslims are prohibited from eating anything that comes from a pig or carnivorous animals and they are not to consume alcohol or other intoxicants. There is also a prohibition against the consumption of harmful foods, which perfectly harmonizes with the basic modern food safety laws in place to prevent modes of food intoxication and infection (Farouk et al., 2015). The Islamic ethics regarding animals and their welfare are based on four sources (Beekun & Badawi, 2005; Farouk et al., 2015): (1) Quran — the first primary source accepted by all Muslims as the verbatim word of Allah revealed to Prophet Muhammad; (2) Sunnah or Hadiths, the second primary source, which means the words, actions, and approvals of the Prophet Muhammad; (3) Ijmaa' (consensus of scholars); and (4) Qiyas (analogy). The two primary sources offer broad principles and guidelines that are not subject to nullification or change for all times and places. Some of the doctrines outlined in the Quran are put into practice by the Prophet in the Hadiths. Laws developed for new situations and problems are based on analogy (Qiyas) to situations dealt with in the primary sources (Beekun & Badawi, 2005; Farouk et al., 2015). The Islamic perspective on the relevant non-human animal welfare issues developed from these four sources are summarised in Table 1 and detailed discussion of the issues are found in Masumi (1992), Masri (1989, 1993), Folz (2006) and Nakyinsige et al. (2013). 2.2. The moral value of animals Islamic scriptural sources including the Quran (verbatim word of Allah) and Hadiths (the words, actions, and approvals of Prophet Muhammad), and the practices and writings of early and recent scholars of Islam are replete with directives relevant to the humane treatment of animals (Masri, 1989, 1993; Rahman & Aidaros, 2011; Nakyinsige et al., 2013). These were superbly summed up by Folz (2006) when he wrote “from this survey of animal-related material from the main

Origin Sentience

Islamic perspective on non-human animals

They are all created by God. There is no direct mention of sentience in the Islamic primary sources. However, Islamic scholars by analogy agree animals are sentient beings. Emotions Non-human animals have emotions. Communication Non-human animals are capable of communication and do communicate with their own kind and even with humans. Soul There is no direct mention of non-human animal soul in the Quran or hadith. Islamic scholars by analogy reached a conclusion that non-human animals possess souls/spirit of God, which keeps them alive and they die when it departs from their body. Refer to references for human soul. Community Non-human animals form and live in communities with their own kind. Rights Non-human animals have a right to be treated with kindness, respect and consideration; to be fed, watered and sheltered; not to be scared, overworked, overburden, disfigured or be forced to do what is not natural for their kind or be used frivolously or incited to fight. When they are to be slaughtered for food, it should be done humanely and with consideration. Worship/spirituality Non-human animals worship God. Purpose Non-human animals were created by God for several purposes including to be slaughtered humanely for meat and to be used for transportation and other honourable purposes by humans.

Sources/reference Quran 24:45; 42:29 Masri (1993)

Sunan Abu Dawud 5268; Sunan Ibn Majah 3163, 3686 Quran 27:16, 18; 16:18; several Hadiths cited by Masri (1989)

Quran 3:169; 6:93; 23:12–14; 32:11; 89:27–30; Saheeh Bukhari 546; An-Nawawi 4; Sunan Ibn Majah 2306; Masri (1993); Folz (2006)

Quran 6:38; Saheeh Muslim 556 Quran 7:73; 11:64; 26:155–156; 54:27–31; Hadith Saheeh al-Bukhari 3140, 3467, 5195, 6009, 6512; Saheeh Muslim, 1957, 1958, 2217, 2242, 2244, 4723; Sunan An-Nasa'I, 4445; Sunan At-Tirmidhi 1480; Abu Dawood 2532, 2567, 2826; Sunan Ibn Majah 3163, 3686; Masri (1989)

Quran 17:44; 24:41; 22:18; 19:93–95 Quran 16:5,80; 22:34,36; 23:21; 36:71; 40:79; Sahih Muslim 4810

scriptural sources of Islam several points can be drawn. First, the tradition takes the relationship between humans and other animal species quite seriously. Second, animals are seen as having feelings and interests of their own. And third, the overriding ethos enjoined upon humans is one of compassionate consideration. Based on these sources it would seem that the Islamic ethical system extends moral considerability to non-human animals, although not on the same level as humans”. Therefore, two primary themes are important to animal welfare in Islam: (1) Animals are individuals that experience life in a way parallel to those of humans, and thus deserve parallel consideration: “There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, nor a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you Nothing have we omitted from the Book, and they (all) shall be gathered to their Lord in the end” (Quran, 6:38); and (2) humans were given a greater gift of cognitive understanding than our animal counterparts which gives us certain rights and responsibilities over animals and most particularly over the ones that contribute to our food supply. But by stating that all animals

Please cite this article as: Farouk, M.M., et al., Industrial halal meat production and animal welfare: A review, Meat Science (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.04.023

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are part of communities and that all will be equally gathered to God at the time of judgement, the verse may be read to mean that any act for or against an animal is equivalent to an act for or against a fellow human. If this line of thinking were left unchecked it would lead to a vegetarian lifestyle. As a result the Quran gave specific instructions as to what would make it unacceptable to eat an animal, “I do not find within that which was revealed to me [anything] forbidden to one who would eat it unless it be a dead animal or blood spilled out or the flesh of swine – for indeed, it is impure – or it be [that slaughtered in] disobedience, dedicated to other than Allah. But whoever is forced [by necessity], neither desiring [it] nor transgressing [its limit], then indeed, your Lord is Forgiving and Merciful” (Quran, 6:145). These simple instructions describing the moral value of animals and the allowance for humans to eat them establish the critical tenets for the use of animals in halal systems; that Muslims are allowed to slaughter animals for food but that the life of the animal is important such that the raising and killing of said animals must be done with respect and not frivolously (Farouk et al., 2014).

for faster line speeds of cattle. In sheep and goat plants, a V-restrainer is good for faster line speed. For smaller numbers of sheep, restraint can be done by hand or with a small station type device. If the animal is going to be stunned, the restraint needs to hold the animal comfortably to reduce struggling yet be held still enough for the application of the stunning device (Grandin, 1992). Animal handlers need to be properly trained on use of equipment and stunning methods. For slaughter without prior stunning, complete immobilization of the head is absolutely necessary. The animal's carotid arteries and jugular veins should be severed within 10 s of the head being immobilized to reduce the stress of restraint. All equipment should be correctly maintained and be free of sharp edges. The equipment should run smoothly and if a double rail system is used it is important that both rails of the system move at the same speed. It is best to have hydraulic controls on the equipment that can be adjusted to each animal and have pressure sensors on them so that the animal will not be held too tightly. Holding an animal too tightly is stressful to the animal and can cause bruising in the meat (OIE, 2013).

3. Halal slaughter and animal welfare in Islam

3.1.2. Rotating restraint Rotating restraint boxes are preferred by some slaughtermen because they give easier access to the neck of the animal and some consider them to be closer to the traditional method of casting animals for slaughter. A rotating system would not be used in a facility that stuns before slaughter. Rotating boxes as a means of restraint are only used on cattle and can be humane or very inhumane depending on how they are operated. The two most important aspects for good management of this system is that the neck cut should be performed very quickly after the rotation of the animal to avoid ruminal pressure on

3.1. Humane restraint for halal slaughter of ruminants 3.1.1. Upright restraint — double rail or box Upright restraint (Fig. 1) is the most humane method of restraint for stunning or for un-stunned slaughter of ruminants (Grandin, 1994). There are a number of types of humane upright restraint; a modified RSPCA box as shown in Fig. 1 can be used for cattle in small throughput operations. A double rail system ending in a stun or kill box works well

Fig. 1. Schematic of the upright restraint for non-stun halal slaughter of ruminants (Grandin, 1994).

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venous return and diaphragm, and the equipment should be carefully maintained so that there is no pain or injury to the animal as it rotates (OIE, 2013). 3.1.3. Casting or hand restraint Casting of larger animals and hand restraint of smaller animals has been the traditional means of preparing animals for slaughter when there is no handling equipment available. Hand restraint of small ruminants such as sheep or goats can be done without the need of ropes if the handlers are stronger than the animals. Hand restraint must also be carried out with care and respect for the animals. Handlers must not use the eye sockets or ears as a means to control the head. Also it is important to avoid pulling on the wool as it is painful for the animal and can damage the hide and meat (OIE, 2013). Casting of larger animals should only be done by well trained personnel. The animals must be cast on a soft surface to avoid injury when the animal falls to the ground. This is an area of animal welfare that is a problem in certain parts of the world (Ahsan, Hasan, Algotsson, & Sarenbo, 2014). Because of the potential for animal suffering during the casting process prior to slaughter, upright slaughter of animals should preferably replace casting as a means of restraint when possible. 3.1.4. Inhumane methods of restraint — hoisting, tripping, cutting of tendons There are slaughter facilities in many parts of the world that still live shackle and hoist cattle. This is often an unacceptable practice because of consequences for animal welfare, worker safety, and meat quality. No animal should be live-hoisted for slaughter but particularly a large animal, whose own weight can cause great injury, must never be hoisted. Trip boxes or cutting of the tendons of live animals to cause them to fall down is also completely unacceptable means of restraint; this practice should be entirely eliminated in the halal slaughter process wherever it is found (OIE, 2013).

3.2. Pre-slaughter stunning 3.2.1. Halal and animal welfare status of pre-slaughter stunning and immediate post-slaughter processes The status of pre-slaughter stunning in industrial halal meat production and some of the animal welfare aspects of it were recently reviewed (Amir, Farouk, & Ghani, 2013; Farouk, Amir, & Ghani, 2013; Farouk et al., 2014; Nakyinsige et al., 2013). Work is continuing in the area of reversible pre-slaughter stunning in order to improve the welfare of animals during slaughter yet still meet the spiritual requirements for halal. Some of these developments were previously reviewed (Farouk et al., 2013, 2014); however, new systems are still under development such as the one by Wagstaff Food Services Pty Ltd. and Advanced Microwave Technologies trademarked as DTS: Diathermic Syncope® (Fig. 2) (Small, Hughes, McLean, & Ralph, 2015). Most of these new systems are yet to be applied in industrial-scale halal meat production. When they are, their acceptability will be based on their compliance to halal requirements and animal welfare regulations. The compliance of any method of stunning depends on whether the animal remains alive (is able to recover and live a normal animal life if not slaughtered) following the stunning (Hayat Mustaqirr) and prior to slaughter, whether the act of stunning in itself is painful to the animal being stunned, and whether or not the stunning affects the flow of blood after slaughter— if it meets all these requirements, then it is permissible. If it does not, then the process would be considered Makrooh/ undesirable (Rahmani, 1998). If it is proven that the stunning does not kill the animal but only temporarily makes it unconscious (reversible) for the purposes of minimising pain and distress, then this aspect is acceptable and also considered as ihsaan (humane), which is highly desirable in Islamic Shariah (Yaqoob, 2010). If a method of stunning is found to be painful, and it can be proven that the pain is necessary in order to reduce a greater pain (e.g. pain due to act of slaughtering), then that method of stunning may

Fig. 2. Novel method of fully recoverable stun in development by a cross-disciplinary team in Australia. The ‘Diathermic Syncope®’ uses electromagnetic energy to effect a reversible stun (Small et al., 2015).

Please cite this article as: Farouk, M.M., et al., Industrial halal meat production and animal welfare: A review, Meat Science (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.04.023

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also be acceptable based on the Islamic principle of Al omoor bemaqasidiha (intention and purpose of the act being carried out). The rulings of the Makkah and Jeddah Fiqh Academies, and of Indonesia (MUI) and Malaysia (JAKIM) Scholars regarding the acceptability of stunning were based on the principle of Al omoor bemaqasidiha. For instance, the Fiqh Academy of Makkah resolution states “If the purpose of stunning is to reduce the pain of slaughtering and to immobilize the animal, then there is no harm in using this method for slaughtering” (Resolution of Fiqh Academy Makkah, p. 191). The Fiqh Academy of Jeddah decision states “… If the animals are slaughtered after stunning then the meat will become Halal only if it is assured through technical means that the animal did not die before being slaughtered” (Qararat majmaul Fiqhil Islami, p. 223). 3.3. Slaughtering Islamic jurists (Fuqahaa) unanimously agree that animals must be slaughtered using tools that minimise pain during the slaughter and kill the animal the quickest way. According to Ibn Rushd, whatever can spill the blood and cut the vessels – whether from metal, stones, or woods, but not bone or tooth – is acceptable for use in slaughtering as long as the method minimises pain compared to other available options (Al Qurtubi, 1198). 3.3.1. Knife size There is no Islamic ruling regarding the form and dimension of knife to be used for halal slaughter. However, research found that when slaughter without stunning is to be performed, the knife must be at least twice the width of the neck of the animal (Grandin, 2010b). Knives that are too short lead to the tip of the knife entering the wound which causes a reaction consistent with pain in the animal, and if a knife is longer than it needs to be it can cause the slaughter person to become fatigued, and fatigued workers are more likely to make errors (Bogardus, 1911). 3.3.2. Knife sharpness Sharp knives are important for the welfare of both the animal and the worker. Dull knives, in any area of the plant, cause an increase in worker injuries and repetitive injuries (McGorry, Dowd, & Dempsey, 2003). Dull knives should never be used in slaughter without stunning

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as they cause the animals to be more painfully reactive and require that more force or sawing motions be made to severe the required vessels (Bishu, Calkins, Lei, & Chin, 1996). Dull knifes also predispose the arteries of slaughtered animals to occlude resulting in a slower bleed out and prolonged suffering of the slaughtered animal (Gregory, von Wenlawowicz, et al., 2012). The steps involved in sharpening a knife and the equipment for the objective testing of knife sharpness are shown in Fig. 3. The traditional method of determining the sharpness of knives in plants has been the “paper test”. In this test a piece of paper is held by one corner and if the knife is able to cut the free swinging part of the paper it is considered sharp and if it cannot it is dull. This method has the advantage of being very low cost and easy to perform. The downsides of this test is that it primarily tests the centre of the knife, which is not the most used section in many plant operations, and the operator has a great deal of control over the outcome of the test. A newer method of knife sharpness testing has been developed in New Zealand by Anago Ltd. (http://www.anago.co.nz/).They have developed a machine that tests the sharpness of the knife along the entire length of the blade and gives an overall score to the blade as well as providing an empiric graph of the blade. Currently this equipment has been designed to handle knives of about 30 cm length. Anago Ltd. is working with a team at Cornell University and the Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America to design a version of the machine that would test knives up to the 47 cm recommended for the un-stunned slaughter of cattle for halal and kosher purposes. 3.3.3. Slaughter cut position and the vessels to be cut 3.3.3.1. Classification of slaughter. The industrial methods of halal slaughter have been reviewed by Farouk et al. (2013, 2014). The three acceptable methods of slaughtering in Islam include [Resolution of Islamic Fiqh Academy, Jeddah, #95 (10/3)]: ▪ Dabh: slitting the animal's throat, oesophagus and jugular veins. This is the preferred method used in sheep, cows and birds, but could be also used in other animals. ▪ Nahr: stabbing the animal in the throat (al-manhar) and cutting downward to the top of the chest. This is the preferred method used in the case of camels and other large animals. It could also be

Fig. 3. Top to bottom, left to right: Photographs of steps involved in sharpening a knife from coarse grinding to steeling, and two versions of Anago Ltd. devices for quantitatively testing knife sharpness.

Please cite this article as: Farouk, M.M., et al., Industrial halal meat production and animal welfare: A review, Meat Science (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.04.023

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used for cattle. ▪ Aqr: causing a physical wound to an unwieldy animal anywhere in its body, whether a domestic but untamed animal or a wild animal permissible for hunting — if the hunter finds the animal alive then he has to do the dabh — normal slaughtering.

3.3.3.2. Technique of slaughter. The number of vessels severed during slaughter affects the rate of blood loss and the time to unconsciousness (if not pre-stunned) and death and consequently the welfare of the animal being slaughtered (Farouk et al., 2014). Gregory and Wotton (1984) found that severing both carotid arteries plus jugular veins in sheep induced a loss of brain responsiveness in 14 s, whereas severing only one carotid artery plus one jugular vein took 70 s, and when only the jugular veins were cut, the time to loss of evoked responsiveness was approximately 5 min. Newhook and Blackmore (1982) found that in one sheep that was slaughtered by severance of the carotid artery and jugular vein on one side of the neck only, the onset of insensibility was delayed for 29 s. Devine, Tavener, Gilbert, and Day (1986) reported a case in which a stunned calf bled poorly because only a single carotid artery was severed, with this animal the electroencephalogram remained at a high level and fell only slowly indicating a possibility of prolonged suffering. Islamic scholars debated these issues in relation to meeting both halal requirements and the welfare of the slaughtered animal. It was unanimously agreed that the preferred method is to sever the gullet, the windpipe, and jugular veins (two blood vessels) during slaughter. However the scholars differed in the minimum number of these vessels that constitutes acceptable technique. According to some of the scholars, it is compulsory to sever at least three of the four vessels (Nasbur Raayah, vol. 4, p. 185), others say to cut the gullet, the windpipe, and one of the two blood vessels (Albadaaey: 4/157), and yet some say to sever the windpipe and all of the blood vessels, but it is not a condition to cut the gullet (Nailul Autar, vol. 8, p. 141; Nasbur Raayah, vol. 4 p. 186). Some of the scholars insist the windpipe and gullet must be severed, and it is preferable to cut the two veins (wadjain) because it is more humane (Al Sharbini, Mughni Almuhtaj 4:270). It is a condition of slaughter that the cutting of the neck is quick and efficient as it has major implications for animal welfare. If the slaughterer lifts his hand before completing the slaughter and then immediately resumes without delay then the slaughtered animal is halal, an unnecessary delay renders the slaughter void. According to some Islamic scholars, it is mustahab (preferred) to hasten the severance of the veins and makrooh (undesirable) to prolong the process because of the saying of the Prophet (PBUH) “relieve your slaughter-animal” as hastening the slaughtering is a kind of relief as opposed to prolonging it (Al Zuhaili, 1999). Islamic scholars agree that the neck is where the cutting should take place, and that the blood has to gush forth (Aidaros, 2014; Farouk et al., 2014). The exact position on the neck has not been specified. Gregory, Schuster, Mirabito, Kolesar and McManus (2012) demonstrated that making the cut in the neck at the first cervical vertebra instead of the second to fourth cervical vertebrae improved bleeding efficiency by reducing the frequency of false aneurysm formation and the early arrest of blood flow. False aneurism could extend the period of consciousness of halal slaughtered animals without pre-stunning resulting in unnecessary suffering and welfare abuse (Gibson, Dadios, & Gregory, 2015). 3.4. Small animals stunning, knife and cut specifications to improve welfare at slaughter It is clear from the preceding discussion and the resolutions of Islamic jurist that (1) the Islamic specifications on slaughter are all designed to minimise the suffering of the animal and to protect the person doing the slaughtering; (2) reversible methods of pre-

slaughter stunning of large animals is acceptable as long as it can be demonstrated that the process does not kill the animal prior to slaughter and does not inflict unnecessary pain over and above the act of slaughter itself; and (3) animal welfare consideration is the reason Islamic scholars allow the use of pre-slaughter stunning and the associated post-slaughter practices; although after careful consideration of the opinions of these scholars and years of in-plant and backyards observation of halal slaughter processes, and in consideration of the stress involved in restraint and stunning/miss-stunning and the time it takes for the processes to be completed pre-slaughter, one wonders whether the welfare of small animals (b25 kg live weight or ones that are easily hand-restrained) is not better served if such animals were to be properly restrained and slaughtered the Prophetic Way — industrial expediency and economic considerations (e.g. throughput rate) aside. The authors of this paper considered Grandin's (2010b) and Gregory, Schuster, et al. (2012) respective recommendations that slaughter knife be at least twice the width of the neck of the animal and that slaughter cut be made in the neck at the first cervical vertebra instead of the second to fourth cervical vertebrae to suggest the following: 1. A standard set of knife specifications be developed for industrial halal meat production, now that it is proven that the welfare of an animal being slaughtered is affected by the size of the knife, 2. The cut position recommended in Gregory, Schuster, et al. (2012) becomes the preferred position for the halal slaughter of ruminants considering that Islam did not specifically mention a preferred cut position along the neck during slaughter. 4. Animal welfare throughout the supply chain Animal welfare along the supply chain is an issue for every type of production system. The days of the small family farm have mostly passed and the growing global population means that food has to be produced efficiently. As a result there has been a trend for animals in agriculture and their caregivers to not have an individual relationship, which has opened the door to viewing animals as machines (Harrison, 1964). This lack of consideration of the feelings of non-human animals before they reach the point of slaughter is the reason that one finds many injunctions in Islam that protect not only the welfare of the animal but their dignity too. There are certain current farming practices which directly or indirectly affect meat supply, that may not be acceptable from the Islamic animal welfare perspective — unless they are scientifically proven to be in the interest of the animal and not only for economic expediency. Some of these practices include (1) the not-for-food killing of surplus bobby calves, goat kids or ram lambs; (2) the maceration of live male chicks; (3) fasting or prolonged withholding of feed for livestock at lairage while awaiting slaughter; (4) biological system overload with its associated welfare problems and deformities; (5) putting male animal on another male animal such as bull on bull/steer for semen collection for use in artificial insemination; (6) feeding of meat or meat byproducts to herbivores; and (7) mutilations and other practices including tail docking, mulesing, dehorning, ear notching, and others that alter the nature of the animal and or degrades its dignity. Some of these prohibitions are further elaborated in the following sub-sections. 4.1. Not-for-food killing of surplus livestock for economic expediency The not-for-food killing of newly born surplus livestock or poultry for the sake of economic expediency is spiritually and morally repugnant and unacceptable. Competition for margins is driving farmers into such practices even though most of them abhor it. Demands for better animal welfare standards from consumers may be achieved by paying a premium for products that come from suppliers with none of these practices occurring at any point in their supply chain, or by adhering to

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the US Humane Society's three Rs advice to Reduce, Replace, or Refine. We are encouraged to reduce consumption of all animal food products and replace meat products with vegan alternatives or refine our diet by shunning products produced by animals under miserable conditions in favour of food products derived from more humane production settings (Norwood & Lusk, 2011). Because Muslims have a strong tradition of eating meat (Farouk et al., 2015), it is highly likely that reduction and refinement and not replacement will work best for halal consumers. 4.2. Not feeding animals to other animals Feeding an obligate herbivore meat or meat by-products is unnatural and morally unacceptable in Islam. By Islamic law, to feed an obligate herbivores meat could be equated to feeding them filth and eating that which consumes filth is forbidden (“Hadith 3785”. Sunan Abu Dawud, Books of Foods. Chapter 25, Book 28, Hadith Number 50 & “Hadith 3786”. Sunan Abu Dawud, Books of Foods. Chapter 25, Book 28, Hadith Number 51). Meat and refuse are considered unclean things for animals to consume. There are various opinions among scholars as to the required washout period between when an animal has eaten unclean food and when it can be slaughtered. This period can vary from 3 days for some animals to up to 40 days for cattle and camels. Some scholars, however, do not feel minute amounts of animal-derived ingredients in animal food are problematic, as it will be too little to be counted as filth (Ibn-al-Qayyem, undated). Other scholars feel that the concept of Istihalah' applies to the modern use of animal products in feed (Ibn Taymiyah, undated), rendering the animals acceptable for consumption. Istihalah' is the concept that a fundamental change can take place to unlawful substance and it can become something lawful under certain conditions. 4.3. Mutilations of animals Any form of mutilation or defacement of an animal is prohibited in Islam (Quran, 4:119). The Prophet said “Whoever mutilates a living creature and then does not repent, Allah Will mutilate him on the day of judgement” (Ahmed, Abu Dawud and Al-Tirmidhi). In another Hadith, “Do not clip the forelocks of horses or their manes or the tails. Their tails are their fly-flaps their manes are their warmth and their forelocks have blessing in them” (Sahih Bukhari Book 7, 423). It is for this reason that the most preferred sacrificial animals for the fulfilment of any Islamic rite is the one that is free of any form of mutilations such as a missing horn, tail, penis, teats or ear or an animal with slits in its ears or other obvious deformities (AlMunajjid, 2013). In addition the condition of the animal is also important as the Prophet said “There are four that are unacceptable for sacrifice: a one-eyed animal whose defect is obvious, a sick animal whose sickness is obvious, a lame animal whose limp is obvious and an emaciated animal that has no marrow in its bones” (Saheeh, Saheeh al-Jaami', no. 886). 5. Improving animal welfare in halal meat production

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A fast and effective avenue of reaching most halal consumers is through their mosques and Islamic centres. In most of the countries the Mosque often stands for Islamic Centre and vice versa. In the most comprehensive survey of Mosques/Islamic centres in the USA, Bagby, Perl, and Froehle (2001) found among other things that mosques were vital to their membership, and most had five daily and Friday congregational prayers. Often such Mosques have appointed Imams who lead all types of prayers, teaching, counselling, conducting weddings and funerals and provide spiritual guidance to the mosque participants (Farouk et al., 2013). According to Padela, Killawi, Heisler, Demonner, and Fetters (2010), the community role of this type of mosque-based imam is analogous to the role of Christian priests or ministers and Jewish rabbis. Devotees' awareness of animal welfare issues just as for health related or other issues could be improved through scripture-based messages in sermons by Imams (Padela et al., 2010). “… for the devout, an argument based on the sources of religious tradition will be more convincing than one that is not” (Folz, 2006; Rahman & Aidaros, 2011, 2012). This may be the reason USAID's Bureau for Global Health used imams to promote reproductive health and family planning in Muslim-majority countries (Freij, 2015). Imams mosque-based sermons have also been used, to increase the detection and treatment of TB in Bangladesh by the Fund for Innovative DOTS Expansion through Local Initiatives to Stop Tuberculosis (Rifat et al., 2008) and raise awareness about cardiovascular diseases among Turkish women in Austria (Bader, Musshauser, Sahin, Bezirkan, & Hochleitner, 2006). Other Faith-based Organizations (FBO) such as churches have been used to aid the fight against HIV/AIDS-related stigma in Uganda (OtolokTanga, Atuyambe, Murphy, Ringheim, & Woldehanna, 2007) and are being increasingly used for various health-related programmes in many countries (Fisher, 2004; Asomugha, Derose, & Lurie, 2011). FBOs including mosque-based organizations would be suitable vehicles for advocating for animal welfare because they are prevalent, well connected, have the infrastructure and are therefore, efficient grassroots organizations (Zaidi, 2015). 5.2. Supply chain transparency If consumers are to vote with their wallets they must be able to identify what they are voting for. The halal industry as it currently operates is not very transparent and shares little about the conditions of animals in their supply chain so that consumers can make informed decisions. A survey by Pufpaff (2014) showed that most halal consumers believe they are making a positive welfare choice when they buy halal, and they are increasingly aware of animal welfare concerns. With access to religious education needed to value animal welfare and industry transparency about the conditions of animals, it is highly likely that consumers would assist in driving change. The other aspect of transparency that is important to animal welfare improvement is the exposure of bad actors. If there are companies that are allowing poor animal welfare to become routine in their plants it is important that they be exposed and either forced to improve or are eliminated from the supply chain.

5.1. Halal consumer education The first step to improving animal welfare in halal production is through consumer education. The previous sections of this paper have shown that animal welfare improvements should be the goal of any true halal productions system, but like any other industry, the impetus is customarily economic. Halal consumers need to be taught to vote with the power of their wallets to enact positive change. This will only happen when they are fully aware and sensitized to the relevant issues around the humane treatment of animals during halal meat production. A survey of a small number of halal consumers in USA indicated an increased desire for better animal welfare in the production systems (Pufpaff, 2014).

5.3. Worker pre- and post-employment screening, training and deterrence measures for animal welfare assurance Potential employees in roles that have animal contact should be carefully selected/screened on relevant animal welfare aspects, such as their potential for empathy and compassion and their ability to maintain this potential on a long-term basis despite sometimes difficult working contexts such as slaughter. This is not currently being done with animal welfare in mind at any point in the meat supply chain as far as we know, although job candidates are routinely being prescreened for employment in other sectors and for other considerations (Borofsky & Smith, 1993; Lanyon & Goodstein, 2004; Levine & Rennie,

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2004; Wang & Kleiner, 2004). Empathy is considered an important attribute in physicians and nurses, that it is measured either at the selection for medical school or during medical training (Hemmerdinger, Stoddart, & Lilford, 2007; Yu & Kirk, 2008). It is also now well recognised that empathetic or compassionate workers suffer more often from emotional fatigues as Figley (2002) puts it “the very act of being compassionate and empathic extracts a cost under most circumstances, …compassion fatigue, like any other kind of fatigue, reduces our capacity or our interest in bearing the suffering of others”. We further know that these emotions can be learnt or revived when they are low or lost (Stepien & Baernstein, 2006; McPhedran, 2009; Conrad & Kellar-Guenther, 2006; Hofman, Grossman, & Hinton, 2011).

5.3.1. Training in halal animal welfare Training and auditing are vital to the improvement of animal welfare (Grandin, 2000, 2006; Pellegrini, 2010). For instance slaughtermen must be taught how to care for and sharpen their knives; animal handlers must be taught how to properly use handling aids and move animals calmly; and farm workers need to know how to properly care for animals and determine when animals are experiencing poor welfare. All of these things require easy access to training. To be fully effective, training should be done in person and as hands-on as possible. Alternatively, online training should be made widely and freely available.

5.3.2. Worker animal welfare abuse deterrence measures The halal food industry must have zero tolerance for any form of animal abuse throughout the meat supply chain. In an ideal world personnel would be expected to do what is right with or without supervision, driven purely by conscience or religious beliefs. As this is not always the case, ways of encouraging workers to comply to rules, processes and procedures in a subtle or blatant manner such as the installation of Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) in animal handling spaces should be employed to protect the welfare of animals during halal meat production. CCTV technologies are widely used for surveillance purposes in order to capture events as they occur or to deter unwanted ones from happening. Individuals can be observed with or without their knowledge in public buildings, train stations, stores, elevators, locker rooms, and school hallways (Cavallaro, 2007). In the UK alone it was guesstimated that there were more than four million (4,285,000) CCTV cameras in 2004 (McCahill & Norris, 2002). There was even a suggestion to use a network of CCTV cameras to globally detect abnormal behaviours, whereby observations are autonomously tracked over space and time using multiple camera views (Zelniker, Gong, & Xiang, 2008). The deterrent effect of police-monitored street viewing CCTV cameras on the crimes of shootings, auto thefts, and thefts from autos in Newark, NJ, USA for 13 months before and after camera installation dates was determined, and results indicated significant reductions in some of the crimes (Capland, Kennedy, & Petrossian, 2011). CCTVs have also been used to “police the police” by reducing the incidences of police misconduct in the UK (Goold, 2003). In meat processing plants, Grandin (2010b) observed that workers will “act good” during an audit and then revert to old, bad practices as soon as the auditors leave. In order to prevent this from happening, plants installed cameras at the stunning, the leadup race, bleed, and truck unloading areas that were monitored by independent third party auditors outside those plants. Although the use of CCTV has been criticised for many reasons including it being an instrument of contemporary ‘social ordering practices’ (Coleman & Sim, 2000), the potential of the technology to deter or minimise animal welfare abuses if installed in areas where animals are handled should outweigh its other social disadvantages as long as the cameras are placed in public/work places and not in private spaces where they can be intrusive to privacy.

5.3.3. Incorporating animal welfare requirements in halal certification One way that animal abuse may be curtailed or eliminated at any point in the industrial halal meat production chain is by incorporating animal welfare checks in the halal certification and assurance processes. Lessons can be learned from the way the meat industry around the world improved their animal welfare practices due to pressure from regulatory and consumer groups (Grandin, 2000; Mench, 2003). Similarly, incidences of animal welfare abuse in halal slaughter plants could be curbed if halal certifiers and regulators in exporting and importing countries instituted animal welfare protection requirements as part of their practices. A new rating system in Israel, effective beginning of 2016 will be doing just that, by incorporating animal welfare requirements in kosher certification. The system, presumably born of the recent scandals involving animal welfare abuses in some kosher slaughter houses, will rate slaughter plants on their treatment of animals based on scheduled and surprise inspections of the plants (Cohen, 2015). 5.4. Harmonizing religious and secular concerns about animal welfare The welfare of non-human animals would be better protected if the disparate views of some of the animal welfare advocates and those of some of the practitioners of halal slaughter and other forms of religious slaughter could be harmonized. A major area of contention is the slaughter of animals without stunning prior to throat slit and exsanguination (Farouk et al., 2014). Proponents and opponents need to appreciate each other's views in order to find a common ground. Some of the stumbling blocks to reconciling the opposing views were discussed in Farouk et al. (2014, 2015). A careful consideration of the Islamic and secular perspectives on animal welfare would reveal that except for the issue of non-pre-slaughter stunning in the industrial production of halal meat, which is allowed in many countries and practised in some and not all abattoirs, all the other modern animal welfare practices are in agreement with Islamic teachings regarding how non-human animals should be treated (Folz, 2006; Aidaros, 2014). 6. Other current issues around animal welfare and halal industrial meat production 6.1. Time of death of livestock following slaughter and implications on animal welfare When an animal is slaughtered it must be allowed to die from loss of blood before any of its part can be considered halal for consumption or use. Thus, any procedure other than the slaughter that causes the animal to die or any part of the animal that is harvested by any means prior to the complete death of the animal, would render the whole carcass or the harvested part respectively non-halal. There is currently no consensus as to when a slaughtered animal can be pronounced dead. This has many implications for the processes associated with the industrial halal meat production that happen immediately post-slaughter such as electrical immobilization and thoracic stick and by extension the whole plant processing efficiency in terms of throughput and profitability. Farouk et al. (2013, 2014) explained the procedure and the purpose of thoracic sticking and electrical immobilization in the context of halal meat production and especially where reversible head-only pre-slaughter electrical stunning is being used. Competent authorities in some importing countries are concerned that thoracic sticking and immobilization may be happening before the animal is dead, and if so, whether these procedures are contributing to, or the cause of the death of the animal rather than the halal cut alone. So, the point when a slaughtered animal can be considered dead is critical for any further processing or workup to commence without risking non-compliance to halal requirements. Under Islamic spiritual teaching, death in humans is the point when the soul leaves the body. However, whether animals have a soul similar

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to humans or not and where the soul resides in the physical body and how to tell when the soul exits the body and death ensues has not been critically examined from the point of industrial slaughter of livestock for meat and the welfare of the slaughtered livestock. The competent authorities in Islamic meat importing countries define death as when the animal is completely still with none of its body parts moving. The time it takes for this to happen is subjectively assessed and varies widely. The concept of life, consciousness/sentience and the soul can be understood from Islamic sources as depicted in Fig. 4. The soul or the life-force is not a material thing, it is the spirit of God which He breathes into each living being, and it has its own existence independent of the physical body (Masri, 1993). Death is the cessation of the biological processes due to the departure of the soul. This departure in humans is facilitated by an angel and is a process not visible to anyone outside the dying person. For non-human animals there is no consensus on how the soul departs the physical body as to whether it is facilitated by an angel or by God Himself — a view accepted by some Islamic scholars (Saeed, 1997). Scientifically, no official criterion of death of slaughtered animal has been formulated. Terlouw, Bourguet, and Deiss (2016) in a recent review suggested that under the field or commercial conditions and following exsanguination, the absence of breathing and of brainstem reflexes combined with adequate blood loss are sufficient indicators of the irreversible loss of vital functions and death of slaughtered animal. Borjigin et al. (2013) identified transient surge of synchronous gamma oscillations that occurred within the first 30 s after cardiac arrest and preceded isoelectric electroencephalogram that could be used to determine time of death for various species. Other approaches and opinions regarding the issue and the basis upon which they were formulated were previously reported (Farouk et al., 2013).

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The only way to answer the questions regarding the timing of thoracic stick and all other post-slaughter procedures is to come up with a definition and time of death that is acceptable to both the authorities and Islamic scholars in halal meat importing countries. This will require harmonizing scientific and spiritual considerations for when a slaughtered animal can be considered dead. To do this, a thorough review of the subject from scientific and spiritual perspectives needs to be undertaken prior to designing experiments to provide hard data upon which definitions and timings of death would be based and agreed upon. The recent reviews on consciousness and death in the context of animal slaughter by Verhoeven, Gerritzen, Hellebrekers, and Kemp (2015) and Terlouw et al. (2016) provide excellent scientific background upon which the spiritual aspects can be built on to achieve this goal. 6.2. Animal welfare and the food/meat security of halal consumers Animal welfare issues can affect the availability, affordability and utilization of meat (meat/food security) for the many Muslims who adhere closely to the dietary laws of halal, particularly those who live as minorities in countries that are predominantly non-Islamic (Farouk et al., 2014, 2015). According to those authors, spiritual aspects of food security for Muslims (and others with similar religious dietary requirements such as Jews) are under threat from legislation, consumer activism, social media campaigns and commercial expediencies that limit or prevent the production of halal meat in certain countries. These threats take the form of (1) escalated debates regarding pre-stunned and un-stunned methodologies used in halal abattoirs and the exemptions/derogations legislated in some countries to accommodate the faith-based requirements of Muslims; (2) the demand for meats

Fig. 4. Pictorially depicts the relationship between consciousness, sentience and life as deduced from Islamic sources. The brain is the seat of cognition and intelligence, the heart is the seat of emotions and faith. The roles being played by the two organs enables consciousness and together with sub-consciousness makes humans and non-human animals sentient. Bodily functions are coordinated consciously and subconsciously. The soul super-coordinates all the functions needed to keep an animal alive. Any of the organs or systems could be tampered with and the animal will remain alive as long as the soul is present, when the soul departs the animal is considered dead.

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produced using halal methods to be labelled as such as a punitive measure and based on a supposition that this meat is ‘less animal welfare friendly’ compared to conventional methods; and (3) the dishonourable and sometimes bigoted tactics employed by certain individuals through the use of social media to negatively influence opinions about halal by attacking symbols and brands associated with Muslims (La Canna, 2014; Niebergall, 2016). 7. Conclusions Islam and secular practices advocate zero-tolerance for any form of animal abuse in the meat supply chain from farm to slaughter. Unfortunately this ideal is not completely observed; animal welfare is still being abused during industrial and cottage halal and non-halal meat production. In this review, which emphasised the halal aspects, we have suggested some measures to minimise such abuse. These include educating halal consumers to advocate for improved animal welfare practices through mosque-based sermons; pre-employment testing of applicants and post-employment training of staff for empathy and compassion; taking deterrence measures against welfare abuse such as the installation of CCTV and related technologies in work places, and the incorporation of animal welfare audits in the halal regulatory and certification systems. Despite general harmony in the global Islamic and secular views regarding what constitutes good animal welfare, some proponents are bogged down by specific issues, such as differing opinions on the use of pre-slaughter stunning. Acknowledgements The principal author acknowledges the support provided through AgResearch MBIE core funding contract no. A19113 that enabled this review to be realized, and thanks Drs Jim Webster, Scott Knowles and Cameron Craigie of AgResearch for their inputs and for reviewing the manuscript. References Ahsan, M., Hasan, B., Algotsson, M., & Sarenbo, S. (2014). Handling and welfare of bovine livestock at local abattoirs in Bangladesh. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 17 (4), 340–353. Aidaros, H. (2014). Drivers for animal welfare policies in the Middle East. Rev. Sci. Tech. Off. Int. Epiz., 33(1), 85–89. Al Qurtubi, M. (1198). Bedayatul Mujtahid, 1/447. Darul Qutub Al Ilmiyah, Beirut, Lebanon. Al Sharbini, M. Mughni Al Mohtaj. Daru Ihya Al Turas Al Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon. Al Zuhaili, W. (1999). Al fiqh Al Islami Wa Adillatohu, vol. 4. (pp. 2768). Damascus, Syria: Darul Fikr, 2768. AlMunajjid, M. S. (2013). Rulings of Udhiyah (sacrifice). Saudi Arabia: The Islamic Propagation Office in Rabwah. Amir, M., Farouk, M. M., & Ghani, A. (2013). Modern slaughtering methods: Islamic and health perspectives. A paper presented at the First New Zealand Halal Conference Jointly organised by Muslim World League and the Federation of Islamic Associations of New Zealand on 28th November 2013 at Langham Hotel Auckland, New Zealand. Asomugha, C. N., Derose, K. P., & Lurie, N. (2011). Faith-based organizations, science, and the pursuit of health. Journal of Health Care for the Poor and Underserved, 22(1), 50–55. Bader, A., Musshauser, D., Sahin, F., Bezirkan, H., & Hochleitner, M. (2006). The mosque campaign: A cardiovascular prevention program for female Turkish immigrants. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 118(7), 217–223. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00508006-0587-0. Bagby, I., Perl, P. M., & Froehle, B. T. (2001). The mosque in America: A national portrait a report from the mosque study project. Washington, DC: Council on American-Islamic Relations. Beekun, R. I., & Badawi, J. A. (2005). Balancing ethical responsibility among multiple organizational stakeholders: The Islamic perspective. Journal of Business Ethics, 60(2), 131–145. Bishu, R. R., Calkins, C., Lei, X., & Chin, A. (1996). Effect of knife type and sharpness on cutting forces. Advances in occupational ergonomics and safety 1. Cincinnati, OH, USA: International Society for Occupational Ergonomics and Safety. Bogardus, E. S. (1911). The relation of fatigue to industrial accidents. American Journal of Sociology, 17(3), 351–374. Borjigin, J., Lee, U., Liu, T., Pal, D., Huff, S., Klarr, D., ... Mashour, G. A. (2013). Surge of neurophysiological coherence and connectivity in the dying brain. PNAS, 110(35), 14432–14437.

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Please cite this article as: Farouk, M.M., et al., Industrial halal meat production and animal welfare: A review, Meat Science (2016), http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2016.04.023