The fisheries of Oman: A situation analysis

Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Policy journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpol

The fisheries of Oman: A situation analysis Rakesh Belwal a,b,n, Shweta Belwal a, Omar Al Jabri c a b c

Faculty of Business, Sohar University, Oman University of Queensland, Australia Department of Natural Resource Economics, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

art ic l e i nf o

a b s t r a c t

Article history: Received 21 May 2015 Received in revised form 12 July 2015 Accepted 12 July 2015

This research paper presents a situation analysis of artisanal fishermen on the Batinah coast of Oman, conducted within the scope of a project that had a broader mandate on training needs assessment (TNA). The collection of data followed a structured survey approach where the questionnaires were administered to 1934 fishermen and were analyzed by a mixed method approach. The findings were triangulated-from information gained from the observations of fishermen and the discussions held with other stakeholders. The research found that the majority of fishermen on the Batinah coast were not appropriately educated and trained. Most of them followed irregular routines, earned little money from fishing, had low savings, faced financial constraints, and lacked knowhow of modern fishing techniques and post-harvest dealings. The fishermen’s performance over several key variables revealed a need for a consolidated marine policy that takes into consideration a host of issues related to the governance of artisanal fisheries and its sustainability and contribution to the economic activities in Oman. & 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Fishermen Artisanal fisheries Socioeconomic aspects Oman Situation analysis

1. Introduction Located in the south-eastern corner of the Arabian Peninsula with a total area of 309,500 km2, the Sultanate of Oman has a vast coastline of almost 3165 km [44] (Fig. 1). The coastline of Oman supports more than 150 species of fish and crustaceans [9]. Fishing has been a vital lifeline for its inhabitants from time immemorial. It is claimed that the fisheries sector is one of the major contributors to the “non-oil/gas generated income source” of Oman [84]. Taking this into account, the master plan “Economic Vision 2020” for Oman targets a growth rate of 5.6% for fisheries, and aims to equip the fishing industry with new fishing harbours, boats, research laboratories, private sector joint ventures, and a fleet of modern trawlers [2]. In its recent eighth five-year plan, the Government of Oman allocated 128 million Omani Rials1 (OMR) for the establishment of modern auction houses, cold storages, refrigerated vehicles, and other supply chain and delivery mechanisms. This will ensure fish availability at affordable prices in the short term and the development of fisheries in the long term. To integrate backwards, the government devised strategies for increasing the production and n

Corresponding author at: Faculty of Business, Sohar University, Oman. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Belwal), [email protected] (S. Belwal), [email protected] (O. Al Jabri). 1 Rial or Omani Rial (OMR) is the official currency of Oman. Since 1986 the Omani Rial has been pegged to the U.S. dollar at a fixed exchange rate of Rials 0.3845 per US dollar. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2015.07.017 0308-597X/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

rationalization of stocks, management of the demand for fish, and for the establishment of a new directorate for regulating and developing the existing fish markets. This will connect them with the newly established central fish market in Al-Filaij in the wilayat of Barka [69,72]. Oman, currently, aims to increase its existing base of 21 fishing harbours and ports to 31 by 2020. The fishing harbours in the wilayats (districts) of Barka, Musan’aah and Liwa are being built to help fishermen to manage their lives well (Times of Oman, 2013). Fishing activities, currently, are confined to traditional and commercial sectors, the former restricted to the 20 nautical mile zone and the latter further [92]. The contribution of the fishing sector to Oman’s gross domestic product (GDP) currently stands at only 0.5 percent. Nevertheless, the potential of the fish industry cannot be ignored. This paper uses the terms “traditional”, “artisanal” “coastal” and “small-scale” interchangeably, for according to [56], researchers and managers refer to fishing adaptations as artisanal, inshore, traditional, municipal, and subsistence, which all overlap with or are subsumable by small-scale fisheries. Over the past 40 years, Oman has exhibited remarkable growth in various sectors such as infrastructure, retailing, manufacturing, services, and heavy industry. However, fisheries and related industries did not see much growth in the real sense. Fish production in 2012 grew by 21% compared to 2011 and reached 191,000 t in volume (or OMR142 million in value), striking an average growth rate of 6% between 2009 and 2012 [81]. Coastal and artisanal fisheries had been vital to Oman’s economy and its citizens. The share of industrial fisheries in Oman, however, had been very

238

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

low in comparison to the coastal and artisanal fisheries. Industrial fish landing stood at a meagre 398.2 t in comparison to artisanal fisheries, scoring 203,454 t of fish landing [47,47]. In 2013, Oman exported 125,690 t of fish, which mainly included pelagic, demersal, and crustaceans, and imported 11,856.5 t of fish [47,47]. In this year, the artisanal fishing industry had 44,521 registered fishermen with a total of 21,342 small craft [47,47]. However, despite government initiatives to bolster the commercial sector and support the fishermen in the artisanal sector, the substantial artisanal fisheries sector could not perform well. Consequently, the majority of fishermen – particularly on the Batinah coast where 35% of Oman’s fishermen live – struggled to subsist [22,23]. The situation of fishermen in the region, which remained grim for a long period of time, demands a thorough examination of the current state of affairs. There is a need to look at the situation of these fishermen from different perspectives. A host of factors are known to affect fishermen’s lives and the sustainability of the fishing sector. These factors include, but are not limited to, licensing, fishing experience, targeted fish species, boat ownership, nature of engagement, accompanying crew, travel planning, marketplace literacy, training, safety, working habits, fishing effort, the amount of fish caught, fish disposal, income, profitability, and savings [93,14,9,8,94,15,22,23,13]. There is a dearth of comprehensive studies that give a detailed account of the fishermen in Oman and their activities. Our examination of existing literature reveals that although there is no dearth of data pertaining to fishermen-related activities in the global context, the data, particularly a chronological account of fishermen-related activities, are not available on Oman. There are a couple of dated studies, which have lost relevance in the modern context. [56] claims that “The frequent failure to acknowledge and examine the diversity, complexity, and dynamics of small-scale fisheries can exacerbate problems for fisheries governance as policies designed on assumptions of homogeneity or on outdated conditions founder on the reality of complex, globalised, and changing fisheries.” Furthermore, Nielsen et al. [69, p. 153] observe that “Modern fisheries management fails to address the core concerns of fishing communities, is insensitive to local conditions, lacks backing from fishing communities and is even inefficient in achieving its own objectives.” This paper, therefore, aims to make some contribution in this regard. This research shares some of the crucial outcomes of a broader study, which looked into the identification of fishermen’s training needs through techniques such as exploratory factor analysis and concept mapping, and their reconciliation with different stakeholders. Following the situation analysis approach, this research, firstly, probes and highlights certain sector-specific issues facing fishermen in Oman, in particular, and the traditional fishing industry in general. Secondly, by drawing on the extant literature, this research reviews the state of fisheries and developments of small scale fisheries in countries which have some similarities with and relevance to Oman. After contextualizing the review results into different themes, and analyzing the primary data collected from 1948 fishermen on the Batinah Coast of Oman, this research then conducts a situation analysis of small scale fisheries in Oman and, finally, reports the findings by placing them into the wider context of global small scale fisheries.

2. Small scale fisheries development in the global context Fisheries production in the world has been declining at an alarming rate, the recovery and sustainability of fisheries need some proactive measures to prevent any further decline [35,38,76,82,91]. Small scale fisheries play many roles in developing countries, particularly in the areas of poverty alleviation and

food security [24,25,43,57,85,86]. However, social and economic contributions of the small scale fisheries sectors have been undermined globally, due to poor governance, absence of appropriate legislation, and inadequate infrastructure [5,52]. However, the artisanal fishery sector offers a de facto informal insurance system to traditional village societies; artisanal fishermen still struggle for livelihoods due mainly to the population growth and unbalanced market integration of fisheries [17,10,89,77]. In most of the developing countries, fishers are often held in low esteem with others for many reasons such as type of occupation, low education, low income, ethnicity, and general marginalization [54]. The adversities which affect small scale fishermen in developing countries demand detailed investigation of the sector in order to devise measures to boost its productivity, sustainability, and long term contribution to the economy. It is not uncommon to find that the situation of fishermen in developing countries reveals some uniformity in diversity, i.e., some commonalities and dissimilarities. For example, fishermen’s use of boat, fishing gear, fishing activities, demographics, opportunities and challenges could be similar or dissimilar across nations. Studying these characteristics individually or collectively across nations can help in developing effective policies. For example, in Yemen, artisanal fishermen use a combination of small fiberglass boats 'huris' and larger wooden boats 'sambuks'; the latter enables them to stay longer (a few days to three weeks) at sea and harvest more catch with reduced operational costs. [5]. Similarly, artisanal fishermen in Senegal use ‘pirogues’ – wooden boats ranging in size from 4 to 19 m, carrying 1–16 persons onboard, and allowing crew to stay at sea for five to seven days [40]. In Kenya, fishermen use different types of vessels in its artisanal fisheries sector. Whilst they use mainly plank wood based traditional crafts – such as mtumbwi, hori, ngalawa and dau, which range from 4 to 10 m and account for more than 40% of the vessels in the artisanal fishery, they use mashua, jahazi and motaboti (modern boats with outboard engines) for venturing into the open sea and spending a few nights there [48]. These similarities or dissimilarities have different meanings for fishermen and the sector. Whilst the ownership or use of non-motorized or motorized boat transport determines fishermen’s access to and choice of the fishing grounds, the use of motorized boats might act as an indicator of additional income, or the viability of fishery systems [59]. Fishing is known to be seasonal in certain countries (e.g. Yemen, Seychelles) and requires fishermen to change their tools and strategies [32,35,5]. Weather conditions at sea directly affect fishing and environmental variability and seasonal changes in the hydroclimatic conditions, and determine the distribution, migration, and abundance of fish to a large extent [61,63,67]. Fishermen, accordingly, need to change their fishing activities and gear, depending on water levels, habitats and migration patterns, and the species targeted [20]. Fishing activities in coastal communities take different forms: commercial or recreational, licensed or unlicensed, full-time or part-time [85]. When carried out on a small scale, these activities provide multiple benefits to fishermen that range from income benefits, social or cultural benefits, to the benefits of maintaining a healthy and diverse ecosystem [53]. The capacity and capabilities of fishermen in small-scale fisheries are of global concern, and can be ascertained generally from their education, level of awareness, access to technology, sincerity of effort and their productivity. Unfortunately, fishers tend to have lower levels of formal education than the general population even in countries having high standards of education [79]. They also lack awareness of nurturing and using resources prudently for their own benefits and for the benefit of the society. In many developing countries where marine fisheries is a critical resource for

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

the majority of the population, overfishing has had severe socioeconomic consequences such as reduced national incomes, high unemployment, and associated social issues [40]. Fishermen can be differentiated in terms of their use of technology, target species, capitalization, licences, quotas, and origin and ethnic background [54]. Artisanal fishers in Mauritius who use relatively unsophisticated technology target demersal species at lower depth levels and pelagic at higher depth levels using large nets, gill nets, line and basket trap, and harpoons usually with small wooden boats (pirogues) of 7–8 m length with an outboard engine of 6–10 Hp [54]. Small-scale fisheries, although not as energy efficient and productive as technology enabled industrial fisheries, offer about 10 times as many jobs per dollar invested as the larger ones [26]. As a policy measure to provide support to artisanal fisheries Yemen, for example, downplayed its industrial fleet, which resulted in an increase in the number of fishermen but a decrease in the catch per unit of effort, however [5]. Nevertheless, investment in technological modernization in fisheries is needed to encourage capacity building and other value additions to improve the status of small scale fisheries [6,55]. The sustainability of small scale fisheries is facing threats in many developing countries due to the adverse socio-economic conditions of communities engaged in the sector and their marginalization [34,66,83,10]. Safety and sustainability issues demand not only enforcement mechanisms and their compliance, but also fishermen’s training, mainly to bring about a positive change in their behaviours and attitudes [21,31]. Studies inform us that both wealth and levels of economic development affect fishers’ willingness to leave, switch, or stay in fisheries. Whilst poor fishers in less developed countries are least likely to leave fishing, fishers particularly from regions characterized by greater economic development have also shown reduced likelihood of leaving their profession [53]. In developing countries, most of the fishers have not been able to increase their income to make their livelihoods resilient [3]. Fishermen’s livelihoods depend on equitable access to resources. Fishers in Bangladesh who were engaged in prawn fishing report a reduction in their income in the last few years [3]. Fishers not only lacked the skills for post-harvest handling of their catch but also financial capital such as savings, and physical capital such as housing, water supply, health and sanitary facilities [3]. The situation demands creation of resources, their equitable sharing, and fishermen’s training. The Cabo Delgado Province of Mozambique addresses the poverty issue by enhancing production and services in three key sectors: oil and gas, tourism, and artisanal fisheries [51]. The Chinese distance water fisheries industry provides training and employment in sustainable fishing and aquaculture to different stakeholders [62]. A strategic management text suggests three main strategies of concentration, integration, and diversification to fill the gap between current income and desired income [58], p.42]. Profitability in small scale fisheries depends on many factors such as the number/amount of landings in the region, seasons, tools used, and sometimes the bycatch [49,6]. Most of these issues are explicit in the modified livelihoods model of [10], p. 379]. Fishers have been found to contain the loss in productivity or risks associated with seasonality and other uncertainties such as financial crunch by diversifying livelihoods and income sources [33,37,41,10]. Issues of poor income and productivity are common in developing countries such as China, Liberia, Guinea, and Morocco who even give exclusive rights to artisanal fishermen by establishing zones of a specified number of nautical miles from the coast and protect these zones from commercial players [62]. Government policies and programmes, globally, stress the need for the development of local organizations for participatory management of fisheries for better resource management [79,82,86].

239

Therefore, the status or situation of artisanal or small-scale fisheries in developing countries can be assessed across several areas (themes) such as demographics, fishing activities, type of boats used and their ownership, nature of engagement, travel to fishing grounds, fishing routine, and output and productivity. In addition, the issues of seasonality, fishermen’s training, market integration, catch disposal, profitability, saving potential, availability of finance, and safety and sustainability need to be considered. Many of these themes have been considered by [56] in his categorization of fisheries and their characteristics. This situation analysis covers most of these themes to arrive at a holistic picture of Oman’s artisanal fisheries.

3. Socioeconomic aspects of Omani fisheries Fishing activities in Oman are deeply rooted in the existence of its prehistoric coastal communities. Excavations related to prehistoric coastal settlements in Oman indicate the existence of a small population of fishermen in the 5th and 4th millennia BC, who had a strong maritime-oriented culture [27]. Fishing and pearling remained Oman’s sources of income for a long time, where the former “brought a steady, though relatively small, income” to the communities ([1]:13). The tradition of fishing continued to play a decisive role in Oman’s socio-economic framework in the post 1970s, and a sizable section of the coastal population persistently relied on the artisanal fisheries for survival and economic wellbeing [78]. According to [39], the first formal study on fishermen by Bertram in 1948 – entitled “The fisheries of the sultanate of Muscat and Oman”, which was submitted to the Sultan of Muscat and Oman – observed Omani fishermen to be “extremely conservative and simple in the way of life, outlook and methods of fishing.” [39] also quoted Pengelley in his pioneering description of Shash – the traditional boat made using date-palm wood – and the fishermen on the Batinah Coast of Oman. Donaldson [71] claimed that the lack of confidence among the fishermen and fish traders kept fisheries in Oman traditional in the pre-1960s, but some changes started taking place in the mid-1960s after government permitted the import of small outboard engines and nylon nettings. Later, Al-Oufi et al. [14] conducted an important study, which discussed at length the activities of the Al-Batinah fishermen, their fishing gear, socio-economic characteristics, vessel operation and management, co-management and experience on the coast. However, this study was limited to three coastal towns (As-Suwaiq, Al-Musan’aah, and Barka). Al-Oufi et al. [14] observed the AlBatinah fishermen, who represented 35% of the total fishermen in Oman, to be middle-aged (between 41 and 55 years), illiterate, earning an average annual income of RO 1869 (approx. US$ 5000) per vessel from fishing, and involved in some additional occupation, such as farming or other jobs. Enquiring further into their fishing behaviour, Younis [92] in his PhD dissertation reported that traditional fishermen in Oman fish round the year, make on average one trip per day, use two to three fishing methods, do not use any navigation system, restrict their fishing efforts to the point from where they could observe the coast, and carry a limited amount of fuel on board. Al-Marshudi and Kotagama [12] conducted a study to understand the socio-economic changes between different geographical locations and the fishing community in six regions of Oman and reported that a considerable number of fishermen (81%) across all the regions had started using modern fibreglass vessels. Their findings on fishermen demographics revealed that 39% of fishermen belonged to the 41–55 year age group, and 13.5% were less than 26 years of age. Sixty-two percent were illiterate and only 4.2% had more than 12 years of education. They found 68% of

240

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

fishermen in these six regions were solely dependant on fishing with an average crew size of two and an average annual income of USD 22,491. However, in sharp contrast, the average annual income of Al-Batinah fishermen was USD 7488. According to them, 80% of fishermen were concerned, primarily, about their low income and social status and, secondly, about the profession, which usually demanded hard work under inherently risky conditions. Al-Jabri [8] attributed the low annual income (OMR 1566 on average) of the Al Batinah fishermen to their lack of access to the larger and faster boats, infrastructure, marketing systems, and other factors such as the lack of homogeneity across the geographic regions and fishermen’s inability to maintain good relationships with stakeholders. Al Habshi [7] conducted a study on the fishing community in the Al Batinah region targeting two groups of respondents: fishermen and non-fishermen in Sohar, Liwa and Shinas wilayats. His findings revealed that most of the fishermen were old (above 50) and earned a low monthly income (between 100 and 300 OMR). The family size of the fishermen differed across cities (most of the families having less than five members). The majority of them owned a boat, had experience over 20 years, but many were uneducated (31%). In a different study on Al-Batinah fishermen, Al Jabri et al. [4] observed significant positive relationships between fishermen’s income and boat length, engine power, weekly trips and catch, and fishermen’s relationships with extension service agents. The study of the Al-Batinah fishermen by Belwal et al. [23] expressed growing concerns about the depleting fish stocks in the region, reduced per-capita production, fishermen’s aging, the knowledge gap between the old and new generation of fishermen, and their exposure to modern technology. They recommended identification of training needs and suitable training deliveries addressing the technical and behavioural aspects as the most sought-after interventions. In the same year, Al Habshi [7] also recommended training or extension programmes to take care of the educational inadequacies of these fishermen. Earlier, [92] had argued that “Understanding the fluctuations in catch is of economic interest for fishermen” and an understanding of technical aspects such as “the relationship between sea-surface temperature and catch” can enable fishermen to secure high-priced fish such as tuna, even in the off-season. However, the above studies on Al Batinah fishermen fail to provide an explorative or descriptive account of the state of fishermen and their activities covering all the coastal wilayats of the region. The gaps, therefore, indicate a need for a detailed situation analysis of fishermen in Oman. The review clearly indicates that socio-economic aspects related to fisheries affect income, growth and development of traditional fishermen. Oman is not the only country affected by the adversities on productivity, economic efficiency, and sustainability. Neglect of the small-scale sector in fisheries policies has prompted fears of a world-wide crisis in fisheries, threatening resource depletion and livelihoods of low-income households in developing countries [10]. Therefore, well laid-out policies are extremely important to artisanal fishers [11,80,87,88], particularly those which enable fisher folks to deal with the issues directly affecting them. Since Al-Batinah is home to more than onethird of all the fishermen in Oman and is the most affected region known for artisanal fisheries, a detailed and cross sectional assessment of the socio-economic aspects of fishermen in all the coastal wilayats is important. The following section discusses the methods that were used to conduct this assessment of the socioeconomic situation of fishermen on the Batinah coast of Oman.

synthesis step of the Problem-Solving Cycle. In their approach, Züst and Troxler [95] recommend performing task analysis – to establish the motives and reasons for carrying out a particular project – followed by current state analysis – involving the conduct of information gathering, surveys (interviews and questionnaires), observations (participating observation, work process analysis, activity sampling) and desk research. According to Züst and Troxler [95], a critical evaluation of the current state, typically, comprises four steps: demarcation of the system from its environment, analysis of the system and the relevant areas of the environment, identification of strengths and weaknesses of the system, and finally the analysis of cause-and-effect relationships. The motives of this research were aimed at assessing the training needs of fishermen in Oman, which were set through the process of task analysis. To conduct the situation analysis, this research identified four main stakeholders, i.e. fishermen, financial support institutions, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (MAF) offices, and the Fishermen’s Training Institute (FTI), to collect the data for assessing fishermen’s training needs. The outcomes of situation analysis are shared in the following sections. However, as stated earlier, the larger project assessed the training needs of fishermen, their relative importance, and reconciled them with the perspectives of facilitators to propose a common minimal programme and strategies. A field survey was carried out from March to June 2012 on the entire Batinah Coast of Oman. Eight coastal wilayats (Shinas, Liwa, Sohar, Saham, Al-Khaburah, As-Suwaiq, Al-Musan’aah, and Barka) were covered in the survey (Fig. 2). According to the [47,46], AlBatinah region, at that time, had a total of 10,886 licensed fishermen in its eight coastal regions. Out of this total, a sample of 2000 fishermen2 was targeted by setting up quotas in proportion to the population of fishermen’ in the eight regions. Following the quotas, samples were drawn from different regions according to convenience. However, the disadvantages associated with the use of non-random sampling were mitigated, to a degree, by targeting every third fisherman’s house. It is to be noted that the traditional fishermen in Oman live along the coastline and operate from the open shore in front of their house. Structured questionnaires were administered only to fishermen found working at their fishing sites, as the inclusion of nonworking population was neither representative nor meaningful. The questionnaire, which was originally developed in English, was translated into Arabic by following the standard linguistic validation process with forward and backward translations [19]. Arabic speaking students were trained to administer the questionnaire and to facilitate interviews or focus group sessions with the fishermen, the majority of whom knew Arabic only. A total of 1934 questionnaires were accepted for inclusion in the analysis. Furthermore, qualitative interviews as prescribed by Wiener et al. [90] and onsite observations were used to identify issues facing fishermen’s groups in different coastal areas on the Batinah coast. These observations, according to McClelland [65], work best in identifying skill, knowledge, or other types of performance discrepancies. Some of the interview sessions and visits were recorded and were used to facilitate the analysis.

5. Results A profile of the responding fishermen is presented in Table 1. The representation of fishermen from the eight coastal wilayats

4. Methods This research follows the general procedure of situation analysis recommended by Züst and Troxler [95] as a concept-

2 A 95% confidence level with 2% confidence interval leads to a sample size of 1967 using web sample size calculator available at http://www.surveysystem.com/ sscalc.htm

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

Table 1 Demographic profile of sampled respondents. Region (Wilayat)

No. of fishermen

%

Age

ƒ*

Shinas Liwa

224 105

11.6 5.4

351 18.1 18.2 1092 56.5 74.9

Sohar Saham Khaburah

345 300 184

17.8 15.5 9.5

As-Suwaiq

302

15.6

Musan’aah

203

10.5

Barka

267

13.8

Less than 20 Between 21 and 50 More than 50 Education Can’t read and write Can read and write Primary Education Secondary Higher Education

n

%

CP

483

25.0 100.0

429

22.2 22.4

348

18.0

440

22.8 63.7

623 72

32.2 96.2 3.7 100.0

40.6

ƒ denotes frequency, and CP – cumulative frequency, wherever applicable.

was in proportion to their distribution in the actual population, as mentioned in the Fisheries Statistics Book [47] of Oman. 5.1. Demographics Overall, 57% of respondents were between 21 and 50 years, 25% more than 50, and nearly 18% were less than 20 years of age. Around one-third of fishermen had education up to the secondary level and a quarter of them had education up to the primary level. While 18% of fishermen were just able to read and write, 22% were unable to read and write. In a nutshell, a sizable segment (40%) of fishermen had relatively low literacy. The majority of fishermen (64%) earned an annual income below OMR 1000 from fishing alone (Table 2). Another 19% earned between OMR 1000 and 1500. Only 10% earned more than OMR 2000 annually from fishing alone. Some fishermen had additional sources of income (N ¼1187). Annual income from all sources for the majority (70%) did not exceed OMR 2000, and it was even below the average Omani monthly wage (OMR 222) for the year 2013. Annual income from fishing was positively correlated with the annual income from other sources (Pearson’s R¼ 0.33, p ¼0.000). In spite of their low earnings, 95% of the fishermen were in favour of recommending a career in fishing to the younger generation. 5.2. Fishing activities Table 3 presents a summarized account of fishermen’s activities, status, routine, and earning potential. Of all the working fishermen, only 66% had a valid fishing licence. This raised a concern about why fishermen work without a licence and what prevents them from getting licences. MAF officials from the directorate of Sohar explained that not only licensed fishermen but their family members also take part in the fishing activity; most of them do not apply for a licence until they need some support from the ministry. They also revealed that any Omani having the basic tools of fishing or a boat can get the licence, irrespective of whether he works as a fisherman or does not. Whilst only half of the sampled respondents were full-time fishermen, a little more than one-third worked part-time, and the remaining 12% occasionally. “Not all fishermen work full-time, as they are involved in some part-time jobs; and some of those who work full-time in other jobs, fish only in the spare time,” said an MAF official. A significant relationship was observed between the nature of fishermen’s activity and their income from fishing (χ2 ¼31.184, p ¼000). Fishermen working full-time secured a

241

higher income than fishermen working part-time or in a mixed mode. Seventy-one % of fishermen had more than 10 years of experience. Whilst almost 20% had 6 to 10 years of experience, 10% had less than five years of experience. Although highly experienced (working for more than 10 years) fishermen reported a higher income, it was not found statistically significant (χ2 ¼12.330, p ¼0.137). Fishermen were involved in catching both demersal and pelagic fish species. A higher number of fishermen (41%) were involved in catching demersal fish species than pelagic fish species (34%). However, a quarter of them were involved in catching both fish species. According to an MAF official, the demersal fish – such as shrimp, lobster, cuttlefish, crab and abalone – provide a stable source of income to fishermen; and the pelagic fish, – such as sardines, anchovies, sprats and mackerels – which are seasonal, offer good profit and export potential. The majority of artisanal fishermen used passive gear such as hand nets, gill nets, long lines and fish traps (locally known as dubaya). 5.3. Boat ownership, nature of engagement, travel time, and seasonality Approximately half of the fishermen owned a boat, 30% had two to five boats, and the remaining 20% did not have a single boat. Almost half of them were the owner of their enterprise. While 30% worked as partners with other fishermen, about 14% worked as labourers. This led to a concern about why fishermen fail to own a boat, especially when interest-free loans are available from the development bank. Discussions with the FTI, MAF, and Development Bank officials revealed that some of them are really poor and do not have the ability to pay. Additionally, a few of them do not want to open bank accounts and issue cheques– a common procedure for paying back the instalments. However, a few of them reported having lost their boats or engines due to theft or other untoward incidents, like torching of engines or boats by miscreants. Around 5% of fishermen preferred skippering alone to their fishing grounds, and about 13% preferred being alone as a single crew. The remaining 82% of the skippers preferred the company of more than two crew members. According to the MAF officials, fishermen skippering alone usually fish near to the shore. They admitted some capacity constraints regarding the size of boats currently offered by the MAF and revealed MAF’s plans to introduce larger boats to accommodate more fishermen as a team. The majority of fishermen (62%) took one to two hours to reach their fishing grounds. While approximately 18% of them took less than an hour as they preferred fishing near to the shore, the remaining 20% took more than two hours to reach their fishing grounds. Due to the scarcity of fish near to the shore, the younger generation preferred travelling deep into the sea, possibly for an overnight stay. However, they faced problems of carrying fuel, food, and other supplies required for their safety. MAF officials informed us that some of the fishermen do not go deep into the sea, for they are either worried about getting lost or afraid of landing in the waters of Iran, a situation that might cause political trouble. The time spent by the fishermen at sea during winters and summers did not reveal much difference. Approximately 80% of the full-time only fishermen spent a minimum of three hours per day at sea, and this included the fishermen (54%) who spent more than five hours per day. Collectively, 70% of fishermen (including both the full-time and part-time) spent a minimum of three hours per day in the sea, including the ones (40%) who spent more than five hours. MAF and FTI officials considered the work in summer harder than the work in winters for two major reasons: (i) fish landings subside during the summer, and (ii) it becomes difficult for fishermen to withstand the sun for a long time. Notwithstanding the fact

242

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

Table 2 Distribution of Fishermen’s annual income. Income (fishing alone)

ƒ

%

CP

Income from all sources (less than X OMR)

ƒ

%

CP

Less than 1000 OMR 1001–1500 OMR 1501–2000 OMR 2001–2500 OMR More than 2500 Income (other sources) Less than 1000 OMR 1001–1500 OMR 1501–2000 OMR 2001–2500 OMR More than 2500

1223 358 132 69 126

63.2 18.5 6.8 3.6 6.5

64.1 82.9 89.8 93.4 100.0

820 111 44 68 144

42.4 5.7 2.3 3.5 7.4

69.1 78.4 82.1 87.9 100.0

1000 OMR 2000 OMR 2500 OMR 3000 OMR 3500 OMR 4000 OMR 4500 OMR 5000 OMR 5500 OMR 6000 OMR or above Total

747 609 152 104 65 109 52 27 19 30 1914

39.0 31.8 7.9 5.4 3.4 5.7 2.7 1.4 1.0 1.6 100

39.0 70.8 78.8 84.2 87.6 93.3 96.0 97.4 98.4 100.0

Table 3 A summarized account of fishermen’s activities, status, routine, and earning potential. Fishing licence

ƒ

Have Don’t have Total

1274 65.9 65.9 Main Owner 658 34.1 100.0 Partner 1932 100.0 Worker Total Fishing Experience 956 49.7 49.7 Less than 5 years 730 37.9 87.6 6–10 years 238 12.4 100.0 More than 10 years 1924 100.0 Total Profit realization 1036 53.7 53.7 Everyday 776 40.2 93.9 Once or twice a week 108 5.6 99.5 Once or twice a month 9 0.5 100.0 Never or almost never 1929 100.0 Total

Fishing status Full-Time Part-Time Occasional Total Fishing routine Everyday Once or twice a week Once or twice a month Never or almost never Total

%

CP

Work Status

ƒ

%

1014 556 255 1825

55.6 55.6 30.5 86.0 14.0 100.0 100.0

200 10.4 369 19.2 1354 70.4

CP

10.4 29.6 100.0

1923 100.0

344 911

17.8 47.2

17.8 65.0

611

31.6

96.6

65

3.4

100.0

1931 100.0

that fishermen in the past used to stop fishing during summers by migrating to the hinterland, today they are active all the time on Oman’s seacoasts. Furthermore, on the preservation and supply front, discussions indicated a need for better preservation techniques in summer to prevent the catch from decaying. 5.4. Fisheries training A huge majority, almost 90% of the fishermen, did not have any prior exposure to education or training related to fishing. Most of the training was given in the area of safety, followed by fishing techniques, gear maintenance, quality control, navigation, environmental issues, boat maintenance, and marketing. FTI and MAF officials, however, disagreed with these stated facts and claimed a higher score for training conducted. A ministry official reasoned that “Usually, the same groups of individuals, in every wilayat, express their interest given the calls for training, and the other groups stand apart from participation in training programs.” 5.5. Fishing routine, output and productivity Almost 53% of fishermen go fishing every day and other 40% once or twice a week. Around 6% of fishermen go fishing less than once or twice a month. Lack of regular effort in fishing is one of the major problems of fishermen. Collectively, 27% (23% of full-time and 31% of part-time) fishermen take days off from fishing activities frequently and only 18% of fishermen participate in fishing

activities regularly. This raises the question of why almost half of the fishermen are not regular in fishing and what should be the optimal rate of fishing in the Batinah region both for sustainable fisheries and a decent livelihood? Is the policy of, what Allison and Ellis [10, p. 386] would call, “Livelihood diversification” conducive to Oman’s fishing community? Whilst the MAF Officials consider fishermen’s behaviour as normal, the officials from FTI justify fishermen’s absences because of their engagements with parttime jobs. MAF staff also believe that some of the Batinah fishermen work in other regions (e.g., Al Wusta region), motivated mainly by higher fish landings, and government support (e.g., accommodation arrangements). This behaviour is consistent with the phenomenon, which Alfaro-Shigueto et al. [6] define as “Spatial–temporal variability”. Only 20% of fishermen catch a good quantity of fish regularly, while the majority (64%) secure a good catch only once or twice a week. Some fishermen (15%) get a good catch only once or twice a month. A cross tabulation between frequency of fishing and amount of catch revealed that around 7% of the regular and 23% of the irregular fishermen generally fail to secure a good catch. Even the majority of fishermen (65%) who go fishing every day do not secure a good catch more than once or twice a week. MAF and FTI officials attribute this problem to the unattractiveness of the Batinah coast and the scanty fish landing. The majority of fishermen indicated that fishing is losing its attractiveness in all the regions on the Al Batinah coast. The situation arising from this decrease in the availability of fish on the Batinah coast, together with an increase in the number of fishermen, has made many fishermen pessimistic about their future. Only a few fishermen maintain a positive outlook. Some fishermen attribute the decline in this fish landing to the illegal fishing conducted by some trawlers, near their waters, which are otherwise banned by the MAF. 5.6. Safety and sustainability issues The majority (95%) of the fishermen agreed they comply with the weather alerts that appear on local TV and radio. Some 30% of fishermen follow these alerts in newspapers. The fishermen also gain access to the weather information from other sources, such as physical observations of the sea, contact with government offices, personal calls or SMS, the Internet, and advisories issued by the meteorological department, MAF, coast guards, or Royal Oman Police (ROP). 5.7. Catch disposal, marketplace literacy, profitability, saving potential, and availability of finance A large number of fishermen (70%) dispose of their catch within an hour. Another 21% sell it within three hours after reaching the shore. Only 8% fishermen store their catch for more

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

than three hours. Although 70% of fishermen claimed to have adequate marketplace literacy, a considerable number (30%) denied having it. This raises concerns such as why fishermen, despite claiming marketplace literacy, dispose of their catch so fast. Why do they not procrastinate their sales to look for a better bargain? MAF officials and fishermen reasoned that once ashore, fishermen either sell their catch selectively, usually at a good price, to customers awaiting them or wait for a trucker to sell the entire lot collectively, at a relatively lower price, within a couple of hours. Although this situation demands some concrete measures in the areas of supply chain mechanism and infrastructure, the possibility of development of fish processing plants and preservation cannot be ruled out. The analysis further revealed that only 18% of fishermen make a good profit every day. Some 47% make a good profit once or twice a week; a considerable number of fishermen (31%) make a good profit only once or twice a month. The cross tabulation between profit and sincerity of effort showed that almost one-third of fishermen who put sincere effort into fishing either do not ever earn a good profit or earn it only once or twice a month. This indicates that the efforts of one-third of the fishermen go to waste most of the time. It was found that only 12% of fishermen make good savings every day. Some 30% save once or twice a week, and a large number of fishermen (56%) save little or nothing. Comparison of their profit with their savings reveals that the proportion of fishermen who make some savings is less than the proportion of fishermen who earn a profit. This indicates that some fishermen spend their entire profit and save nothing. Around a quarter of fishermen face difficulties in arranging finance to support fishing at least once or twice a week. Another 38% of fishermen face difficulties in arranging finance either once or twice a month. Approximately 38% do not face any financial problem. Discussions with MAF, FTI, and Development Bank officials reveal that most of the fishermen lack knowledge about arranging finance, dealing with the banks, and maintaining relationships with the concerned bodies for the possibility of arranging funds.

6. Discussion The above findings reveal the state of fisheries and the difficulties of fishermen in Oman. The facts reveal that fishermen in Oman, a high-income country otherwise, deviate markedly from others in their distribution of per capita income. A prime testimony to this is the low annual income of the fishermen, which raises concerns about the sustainability of this traditional fishing sector. This finding is consistent with earlier local studies [12,14,8,22,7,23,4], given the possibility that fishermen may tend to downplay or hide their actual income, mainly in anticipation of some support from the government. The Batinah coast has been the epicentre of fishing activities and research from time immemorial. The coast has witnessed a number of government investments right from the introduction of the OMR 12 Shash at the beginning to the $3.1 million fibreglass -boat project in the 70s [39], and the allocation of millions of Rials during the eighth Five-Year Plan. Despite several initiatives, the region has not witnessed any improvement in the efficiency of fishermen and the fishing system. Unfortunately, fishermen, mainly along the Batinah Coast of Oman, are still fighting for their subsistence. However, despite these difficulties, fishing as a non-oil economic activity is very important to Oman, for it provides direct income to many people. The Artisanal fishery alone provides direct income to 12,675 fishermen in the Batinah region, in particular,

243

and 44,521 fishermen in general [47,47]. On the production and supply front, fisheries in Oman claim 32%, 27%, and 11% of the revenue from total agricultural production, total food export, and non-oil export, respectively [30]. On the demand front, Oman is one of the highest fish consuming countries in the world, with an estimated per-capita consumption of 28.6 kg per annum and a positive income and price elasticity ([70]: 76; [45,74]). To deal with this high domestic demand for fish, Oman currently restricts its exports to 50% of its total production, by following a tight export control policy [45,81]. Therefore, the production of fish, its management, and sustainability are serious issues for Oman [45,81]. Oman cannot afford to ignore this industry at a time when it is contemplating revenues from diverse sources. From the initial review and the findings, it is clear that the situation of fishermen in Oman is not much different from other developing countries such as Peru, Yemen, and the Philippines in the context of production, management and sustainability issues [16,5,6]. Furthermore, the demographics of Omani fishermen and their activities do not differ much from fishermen in the south East Asian regions, such as the Philippines, in the context of age, experience, education, daily catch and fishing days according to the profile of the sampled fishermen from Oman [17,68]. What is more troublesome for Oman is the disparities in income, infrastructure, and operational efficiency within and across the fisheries sector. Studies on Omani fishermen inform us that there is an absence of standards of fish grading ([73]:60), fish processing facilities, organized markets, and efficient information systems that link fishermen to upstream and downstream entities [75,9]. Oman needs to identify appropriate policies for managing both the demand and the supply of fish as well as the sustainability of the industry. Although the government’s recent initiatives of establishing a central fish market in Barka and plans to construct two fishing harbours in Musannah and Liwa can be helpful in dealing with the demand and supply problems in the Batinah region [81], much more is needed on the policy, infrastructural, and management front. So far all such initiatives have emerged in a state controlled top-down fashion, and have not been adequately effective in reviving the state of affairs of fisheries and the fishermen. The existing state of affairs in Oman demands some moves, like the ones taken by the Philippines, towards more participative and convergent policy initiatives [16,79]. On the socio-cultural front, the Batinah fishermen are confronting the dual challenges of preserving their cultural legacy of artisanal fishing and of making a decent living out of it. Whilst the former pulls them towards fishing, the latter forces them to look for other professions (to work on a full-time or part-time basis). Another threat is related to the increase in the minimum labour wage rate, currently OMR 325 per month, which is attracting some disappointed fishermen to the manufacturing or services sector. Since a sizable segment (40%) of fishermen have a relatively low level of education, this shortcoming might induce their switching to other professions and affect their learning potential to advance in fishing adversely. Similar to the findings of Al-Oufi et al. [14] (as cited in Al-Marshudi and Kotagama [12], this study also finds a low level of education among fishermen, despite the tremendous growth in educational institutions across the country. Therefore, income and literacy coupled with other issues, such as aging among traditional fishermen or a low level of education and awareness among the younger generation, is affecting the artisanal industry adversely. To preserve the artisanal techniques and to strike a balance with the advancement in technology, the fishermen certainly need to achieve higher awareness and skill levels, particularly when almost 90% fishermen deny that they received any training. This along with the fact that 34% of them work without a licence raises serious concerns about whether a profession like fishing can be

244

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

Fig. 1. Map of Oman.

sustained without fishermen acquiring a systematized body of knowledge and a licence certifying those skills. These concerns are consistent with the findings of the FAO [42] which point out that there is a lack of knowledge among the traditional fishermen in Oman. Whilst a basic diploma is mandatory in European countries to obtain a fishing licence, why does Oman lack such initiatives? What prohibits Oman from making diplomas or degrees mandatory for obtaining fishing licences or loans? Some human-resource development policies and interventions are therefore, necessary. Additionally, Oman needs to contemplate whether a move away

from the top-down approach in fisheries management towards a more participative, and perhaps convergent co-management would be good for managing its fisheries [16]. The finding that only 20% fishermen get a good catch raises the issue of why other fishermen do not get a good catch on a regular basis. Is it related to externalities such as the decrease in fish landing? Do they lack some crucial skills? Or is it because of their irregular fishing efforts? Or is it because of their wasteful expenditure? The externally governed factors, such as decline in fish landings and illegal fishing by commercial vessels, are consistent

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

245

Fig. 2. The targeted regions on the Al Batinah Coast in the Gulf of Oman.

with other global studies [35,38]. The outcomes of the “International Workshop on Management of Tropical Coastal Fisheries in Asia” report serious declines in fish catches in Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand are illustrative of a regional trend, and highlight the requirement for key interventions such as reducing and managing the fishing capacity, strengthening licensing systems, limiting entry to fisheries, and increasing gear selectivity, while taking into account the broader socioeconomic role of fisheries. Our results and arguments are supportive of these global observations in small scale fisheries ([28], p. 108). Some fishermen might blame their inability to travel far out to sea and stay there longer on their small boats. However, the spread of fisheries towards deeper waters, in itself, threatens the very sustainability of the less productive ecosystems and fisheries, and demand additional policies for regulatory regimes and accurate ecosystem assessments [18,29]. Furthermore, a low saving propensity among the fishermen raises a concern about what fishermen do with the profit that they earn. Do they reinvest it in their business? Do they consume more for better living? Or do they spend the money on wasteful activities? These questions need further probing. Fishing is the only food production activity for fishermen in Oman, given the geography of the coast. Fishermen in Oman cannot seek their subsistence by mixing fishing with farming, unlike other developing countries such as Indonesia, India, Java, the Philippines, and Ghana [17,36,77,89,10]. This finding is consistent with that of [54] who mentioned the lack of economic pluralism and occupational multiplicity affecting fishermen in Mauritius. According to Béné and Friend (2011), literature highlighting the importance of alternative livelihoods and diversification needs to reflect on whether small-scale full-time fishers are poor due to their low productivity or due to their sole dependence on fisheries. In line with the observations of Hicks et al. [53], our study finds that the fishermen in Oman seek commercial and

social benefits from fisheries and aim to stay with fisheries in this high income country despite facing setbacks in their income. However, the possibility of fishermen moving to attractive regions is consistent with other researches [40]. Furthermore, possibilities of alternative diversifications e.g., to tourism as in the case of Mozambique or the Balearic Islands, can be explored [51,64]. However tourism “threatens to exclude fishermen from traditional productive sites” ([50], pp. 97) and has increased tension within communities [69]. All the above facts, figures, and evidence reflect the need for a consolidated marine policy which takes into consideration a host of initiatives in the areas of sustainability, governance of artisanal fisheries, training of fishermen, licensing, education, infrastructure and market development, and the promotion of innovation and entrepreneurship. Similar to the findings of Al-Oufi et al. [14], [12], our study also finds a low level of education among fishermen, despite the tremendous growth in educational institutions across the country. The initiatives that Oman lacked in the post 1970s should not affect the state of economy where Oman is running out of its petroleum-based natural resources, and where fisheries and other non-oil sectors will have to drive the engine of growth. Oman is currently preparing its Vision 2040 for fisheries to take care of these issues. However, Oman needs a clear cut policy regarding artisanal fishing and its expected contribution to the economy. The current policy of licences and fishermen’s initiatives generate a sort of complacency among artisanal fishermen, similar to the case of Tango [59], who value fishing just as a means to food, social support, subsistence requirements and traditional values, rather than an occupation. Following this line of thought, the “harmonization of objectives” in fisheries and diversification policies can help in improving the productivity, income, and employment conditions in fisheries and the industry ([60], p. 1141). According to Muallil et al. [68], targeting fishermen who are willing to exit the fishery might both effectively reduce fishing pressure

246

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

while improving the fishers’ well-being and fisheries’ sustainability. To sum up, Oman needs to work on a host of policy issues to revive its fisheries. The findings of this paper reveal the most pressing ones. Future research is needed not only to explore further issues but also to work specifically on each of these concerns. There are always some limitations which occur in any research work. This research work also encountered certain limitations during the research process which would help the readers in making inductive interpretations and in taking informed decisions. First, the survey was conducted during the summer and some fishermen who work exclusively in the winter might have been missed. Second, the survey information sought largely through fishermen’s verbal responses to the questions uttered by researchers might lead to inaccuracy, over or under ratings, or a less candid evaluation. However, whenever possible, measures were taken to minimize and alleviate their impact on the validity of the results. These measures included an assurance of confidentiality and triangulation of the findings in a series of focus groups and interviews with fishermen, MAF officials and extension agents, officials of the Oman Development Bank, and the director and staff of FTI.

7. Conclusions The artisanal fishery, one of the key sources of income and occupation in the coastal regions of Oman, is not in a very good state on the Batinah coast of Oman. The situation analysis pertaining to the general condition of fishermen reveals several concerns. The main worries of this sub-sector relate to fishermen who exhibit low levels of income, literacy, education, productivity, participation in training and development, and the vulnerabilities caused mainly by scanty fish landings on the coast, lack of operational efficiencies and established supply chain mechanisms, and the widening gaps between traditional and modern fishermen and their techniques. In the global small scale fisheries context, the depleting levels of fishing, the low income and skill levels and their impact on fishermen’s productivity and savings, and operational inefficiencies are not atypical findings. What differentiates Oman is its unique set of circumstances which mainly arise from its similarity with high-income countries in other major sectors except fishing, which does not even offer fishermen some avenues of mixed farming. While almost a quarter of the fishermen are aging, the majority, including the young ones, have a low level of literacy or education. This together with a dismally low annual income – including all the sources – threatens their subsistence. Whilst some fishermen groups lack access to basic resources such as boats, fishing gear, and petty finances, others lack confidence in their fishing abilities and restrict their fishing to areas near to the shore. Certain deficiencies, which are evident in their awareness, knowledge, activities, development, and growth, demand some serious policy intervention, particularly a strong need for identification of their training needs, the conducting of suitable programmes, and their successful delivery. Some of these fishermen need training on behavioural issues that go beyond enhancing their technical skills. In spite of the fact that the majority of the fishermen are experienced in artisanal fisheries, the genre which they learnt mostly from their predecessors, there is a serious need to introduce them to education and training. Furthermore, the issue of full-time and part-time fishermen also needs some consideration in these policy initiatives. Well-integrated policies on vocational education, financial support, and training to fishermen holding valid licences are necessary to modernize the industry and to preserve the culture, waterfronts and marine life.

Acknowledgement The research leading to these results has received funding from the Research Council of the Sultanate of Oman under the TRC Grant agreement no ORG SU EHR 11 004.

References [1] D.A. Agius, In the wake of the Dhow: The Arabian Gulf and Oman, Garnet Publishing Ltd., 2009. [2] Agriculture and Fisheries Report (2000) Retrieved from: (http://www.omaninfo.com/agriculture-fisheries/agriculture-and-fisferies-report-2000.asp). [3] N. Ahmed, M. Troell, E.H. Allison, J.F. Muir, Stockholms universitet, & Stockholm Resilience Centre. Prawn postlarvae fishing in coastal Bangladesh: challenges for sustainable livelihoods, Mar. Policy 34 (2) (2010) 218–227, http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2009.06.008. [4] O. Al Jabri, R. Collins, X. Sun, A. Omezzine, R. Belwal, Determinants of smallscale fishermen’s income on Oman’s Batinah Coast, Mar. Fish. Rev. 75 (3) (2013) 21–32, http://dx.doi.org/10.7755/MFR.75.3.3. [5] N. Alabsi, T. Komatsu, Characterization of fisheries management in Yemen: a case study of a developing country's management regime, Mar. Policy 50 (2014) 89–95, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2014.05.015. [6] J. Alfaro-Shigueto, J.C. Mangel, M. Pajuelo, P.H. Dutton, J.A. Seminoff, B. J. Godley, Where small can have a large impact: structure and characterization of small-scale fisheries in Peru, Fish. Res. 106 (2010) 8–17, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.fishres.2010.06.004. [7] M.S. Alhabsi, The fisheries community of Al Batinah region in Oman: a socioeconomic overview, J. Fish. Sci. 6 (3) (2012) 215–223. [8] O.S. Al-Jabri, Promoting small-scale fisheries on the Batinah Coast, the Sultanate of Oman: a supply chain strategy and management approach Ph.D. Thesis, School of Natural and Rural Systems Management, The University of Queensland, Australia, 2008, submitted. [9] O.S. Al-Jabri, A. Omezzine, H. Boughanmi, Fresh Fish Markets in Oman, J. Int. Food Agribus. Mark. 14 (2) (2003) 77–93. [10] E.H. Allison, F. Ellis, The livelihoods approach and management of small-scale fisheries, Mar. Policy 25 (5) (2001) 377–388. [11] E.H. Allison, B. Horemans, Putting the principles of the sustainable livelihoods approach into fisheries development policy and practice, Mar. policy 30 (6) (2006) 757–766. [12] A.S. Al-Marshudi, H. Kotagama, Socio-economic structure and performance of traditional fishermen in the Sultanate of Oman, Mar. Res. Econ. 21 (2006) 221–230. [13] F. Al-Mukrashi. Fish production fails to meet local demand: Ministry report. Times of Oman, 2013. Retrieved from: 〈http://www.timesofoman.com/News/ Article-20946.aspx#〉. [14] H. Al-Oufi, A. Palfreman, et al., Observations upon the Al-Batinah artisanal fishery, the Sultanate of Oman, Mar. Policy 24 (5) (2000) 423–429. [15] A.A. Al-Riyami. Greater potential being realized with enhancement of fisheries sector. Oman Observer, Sun, 14 November 2010. Online available at: 〈http:// main.omanobserver.om/node/29998〉. [16] H.O. Arceo, B. Cazalet, P.M. Aliño, L. Mangialajo, P. Francour, Moving beyond a top-down fisheries management approach in the northwestern Mediterranean: Some lessons from the Philippines, Mar. Policy 39 (2013) 29–42, http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2012.10.006. [17] C. Bailey, C. Pomeroy, Resource dependency and development options in coastal Southeast Asia, Soc. Nat. Res. 9 (1996) 191–199. [18] N.C. Ban, S.M. Maxwell, D.C. Dunn, A.J. Hobday, N.J. Bax, J. Ardron, R.L. Pressey, Better integration of sectoral planning and management approaches for the interlinked ecology of the open oceans, Mar. Policy 49 (2013) 127, http://dx. doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.11.024. [19] D.E. Beaton, C. Bombardier, F. Guillemin, M.B. Ferraz, Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures, Spine 25 (24) (2000) 3186–3191. [20] Béné, C., & Friend, R. M. (2011). Poverty in small-scale fisheries old issue, new analysis. Progress in Development Studies, 11(2), 119-144. [21] R. Belwal, S. Belwal, O. Al Jabri, Training needs assessment of fishermen in Oman through concept mapping technique, Eur. J. Train. Dev. 38 (7) (2014) 673–688, http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/EJTD-11-2013-0120. [22] S. Belwal, R. Belwal, F. Al-Shizawi. Fish Markets in Oman: a study of fishermen from the subsistence marketplace of the Al-Batinah Coast, Conference paper presented at the 3rd Subsistence Marketplace Conference, University of Illinois, Chicago, USA. July 8–10, 2010. [23] S. Belwal, R. Belwal, F. Al-Shizawi, Fishermen on the Batinah Coast in Oman, International Journal of Asian Business and Information Management 3 (1) (2012) 29–49. [24] C. Bene, S. Heck, Fisheries and the millennium development goals: solutions for Africa, NAGA, World Fish Centre Q. 28 (3–4) (2005) 14–18. [25] C. Béné, Small-scale fisheries: assessing their contribution to rural livelihoods in developing countries, FAO Fish. (2006), Circular No. 1008 FIPL/C1008 (En). [26] F. Berkes, M. Kislalioglu, A comparative study of yield, investment and energy use in small-scale fisheries: some considerations for resource planning, Fish. Res. 7 (3) (1989) 207–224.

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

[27] P. Biagi, W. Torke, M. Tosi, H. Uerpmann, Qurum: a case study of coastal archaeology in Northern Oman, World Archaeol. 16 (1) (1984) 43–61. [28] S.J.M. Blaber, Assessment, management and future directions for coastal fisheries in Asian countries: key papers from a workshop held in Penang, Malaysia in March 2001, Fish. Res. 78 (2) (2006) 107–108. [29] S.J.M. Blaber, Tropical Estuarine Fishes: Ecology, Exploitation and Conservation. Blackwell, Oxford (2000), p. 372. [30] H. Boughanmi, A. Al-Mandheri, H. Al-Oufi, A. Omezzine, Determinants of fish export performance in Oman, J. Int.Food & Agribus. Mark. 19 (2) (2007) 9–25. [31] L.M. Campell, M.L. Cornwell, Human dimensions of bycatch reduction technology: current assumptions and directions for future research, Endanger. Species Res. 5 (2008) 325–334. [32] M. Cetra, M. Petrere, Seasonal and annual cycles in marine small‐scale fisheries (Ilhéus – Brazil), Fish. Manag. Ecol. 21 (3) (2014) 244–249, http://dx.doi. org/10.1111/fme.12070. [33] R. Chambers, A. Pacey, L.A. Thrupp, Farmer First: Farmer Innovation and Agricultural Research, Intermediate Technology Publication, London, UK, 1989. [34] R. Chuenpagdee, L. Liguori, M.L.D. Palomares, D. Pauly, Bottom-up, global estimates of small-scale fisheries catches, Fish. Centre Res. Rep. 14 (2006) 110. [35] J. Clifton, M. Etienne, D.K.A. Barnes, R.S.K. Barnes, D.J. Suggett, D.J. Smith, Marine conservation policy in Seychelles: current constraints and prospects for improvement, Mar. Policy 36 (3) (2012) 823–831, http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1016/j.marpol.2011.11.009. [36] S. Coulthard, Adapting to environmental change in artisanal fisheries—Insights from a south Indian lagoon, Global Environ. Change 18 (3) (2008) 479–489, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2008.04.003. [37] S. Davies, Adaptable livelihoods: coping with food insecurity in the Malian Sahel, Macmillan Press Ltd., 0-333-63386-51996. [38] T.M. Daw, J. Robinson, N.A.J. Graham, Stockholms Universitet, & Stockholm Resilience Centre, Perceptions of trends in Seychelles artisanal trap fisheries: comparing catch monitoring, underwater visual census and fishers’ knowledge, Environ. Conserv. 38 (1) (2011) 75–88, http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/ S0376892910000901. [39] W. Donaldson, Enterprise and innovation in an indigenous fishery: the case of the Sultanate of Oman, Dev. Change 11 (3) (1980) 479–495. [40] C. DuBois, C. Zografos, Conflicts at sea between artisanal and industrial fishers: inter-sectoral interactions and dispute resolution in Senegal, Mar. Policy 36 (6) (2012) 1211. [41] F. Ellis, Rural Livelihoods and Diversity in Developing Countries, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2000. [42] FAO. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture - Part-2, 2000. Retrieved from: 〈http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x8002e/x8002e05.htm〉. [43] FAO, Increasing the contribution of small-scale fisheries to poverty alleviation and food security, FAO Technical Guidelines for Responsible Fisheries, No. 10, (2005) 79. [44] FAO. AQUASTAT -FAO’s Information System on Water and Agriculture, 2008. Retrieved from: 〈http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/ oman/index.stmc〉 (accessed 12.03.13). [45] FAO. FAO Report: Fisheries and Aquaculture Markets in the Middle East, 2014. Retrieved from: 〈http://www.thefishsite.com/articles/1870/fao-report-fish eries-and-aquaculture-markets-in-the-middle-east#sthash.9StcQtiG.dpuf〉. [46] Fisheries Statistics Book, Fisheries Statistic & Information Dept., General Directorate of Fisheries Research, Government of Oman, 2011. [47] Fisheries Statistics Book. Fisheries Statistic & Information Dept., General Directorate of Fisheries Research, Government of Oman, 2013. Retrieved from: 〈http://www.maf.gov.om/Pages/BulletinDetails.aspx? Id ¼ 596&lang ¼EN&I¼ 104197&DId ¼ 0&CId ¼0&CMSId ¼800269〉 (accessed 15.05.14). [48] B. Fulanda, J. Ohtomi, E. Mueni, E. Kimani, Fishery trends, resource-use and management system in the Ungwana bay fishery Kenya, Ocean Coast. Manag. 54 (5) (2011) 401–414, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2010.12.010. [49] E. Gilman, S. Clarke, N. Brothers, J. Alfaro-Shigueto, J. Mangelman, J. Mangel, S. Petersen, S. Piovano, N. Thompson, P. Dalzell, M. Donoso, M. Goren, T. Werner, Shark interactions in pelagic longline fisheries, Mar. Policy 32 (2008) 1–18. [50] J. Guerreiro, A. Chircop, D. Dzidzornu, C. Grilo, R. Ribeiro, R. van der Elst, A. Viras, The role of international environmental instruments in enhancing transboundary marine protected areas: An approach in East Africa, Mar. Policy 35 (2) (2011) 95–104, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.06.013. [51] J. Guerreiro, A. Chircop, C. Grilo, A. Viras, R. Ribeiro, R. van der Elst, Establishing a transboundary network of marine protected areas: Diplomatic and management options for the east African context, Mar. Policy 34 (5) (2010) 896–910, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.01.014. [52] K.I. Hariri, P. Nichols, F. Krupp, S. Mishrigi, A. Barrania, A.F. Ali, S.M. Kedidi, Status of the living marine resources in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden region and their management, Strategic Action Programme for the red Sea and Gulf of Aden, Final Report 2000 (151p) (2000). [53] C.C. Hicks, N. Stoeckl, J.E. Cinner, J. Robinson, Fishery benefits and stakeholder priorities associated with a coral reef fishery and their implications for management, Environ. Sci. Policy 44 (2014) 258, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. envsci.2014.04.016. [54] O. Hollup, Structural and sociocultural constraints for user-group participation in fisheries management in Mauritius, Mar. Policy 24 (5) (2000) 407–421, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-597X(00)00016-6. [55] J. Jacquet, D. Pauly, Funding priorities: Big barriers to small-scale fisheries, Conserv. Biol. 22 (4) (2008) 832–835, http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/

247

j.1523-1739.2008.00978.x. [56] D.S. Johnson, Category, narrative, and value in the governance of small-scale fisheries, Mar. Policy 30 (6) (2006) 747–756, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. marpol.2006.01.002. [57] G. Kent, Fisheries, food security and the poor, Food Policy 22 (5) (1997) 393–404. [58] P. Kotler, K.L. Keller, Marketing Management, 14th ed., Prentice Hall, New Jersey, NJ, 2012. [59] M. Kronen, Fishing for fortunes?: A socio-economic assessment of Tonga’s artisanal fisheries, Fish. Res. 70 (1) (2004) 121–134. [60] M. Kronen, A. Vunisea, F. Magron, B. McArdle, Socio-economic drivers and indicators for artisanal coastal fisheries in pacific island countries and territories and their use for fisheries management strategies, Marine Policy 34 (6) (2010) 1135–1143, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.03.013. [61] P. Lehodey, J. Alheit, M. Barange, T. Baumgartner, Climate variability, fish, and fisheries, J. Clim. 19 (20) (2006) 5009–5030, http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/ JCLI3898.1. [62] T.G. Mallory, China’s distant water fishing industry: evolving policies and implications, Mar. Policy 38 (2013) 99–108, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. marpol.2012.05.024. [63] L.M. Manjarrés-Martínez, J.C. Gutiérrez-Estrada, J. Mazenet-González, M. C. Soriguer, Seasonal patterns of three fish species in a Caribbean coastal gillnet fishery: Biologically induced or climate-related aggregations? Fish. Res. 106 (3) (2010) 358–367, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2010.09.005. [64] F. Maynou, B. Morales-Nin, M. Cabanellas-Reboredo, M. Palmer, E. Garcia, A. M. Grau, Small-scale fishery in the Balearic Islands (W Mediterranean): a socio-economic approach, Fish. Res. 139 (2013) 11. [65] S.B. McClelland, Training needs assessment data-gathering methods: Part 4, on-site observations, J. Eur. Ind. Train. 18 (5) (1994) 4–7. [66] J.R. McGoodwin, Understanding the cultures of fishing communities – a key to fisheries management and food security, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No. 401, FAO, Rome (2001), p. 287. [67] B.S. Moses, O.M. Udoidiong, A.O. Okon, A statistical survey of the artisanal fisheries of south-eastern Nigeria and the influence of hydroclimatic factors on catch and resource productivity, Fish. Res. 57 (3) (2002) 267–278, http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0165-7836(01)00353-8. [68] R.N. Muallil, R.C. Geronimo, D. Cleland, R.B. Cabral, M.V. Doctor, A. Cruz-Trinidad, P.M. Aliño, Willingness to exit the artisanal fishery as a response to scenarios of declining catch or increasing monetary incentives, Fish. Res. 111 (1) (2011) 74–81, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fishres.2011.06.013. [69] J.R. Nielsen, P. Degnbol, K.K. Viswanathan, M. Ahmed, M. Hara, N.M. R. Abdullah, Fisheries co-management—an institutional innovation? Lessons from south East Asia and Southern Africa, Mar. Policy 28 (2) (2004) 151–160, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-597X(03)00083-6. [70] NOAA. Fisheries of the United States – 2010, Per Capita Consumption, 2010. Retrieved from: 〈http://www.st.nmfs.noaa.gov/st1/fus/fus10/08_perita2010. pdf〉 (accessed 15.03.14). [71] Oman: Barka central fish market opens today, 2014. MENA Report, Retrieved from: 〈http://search.proquest.com/docview/1517964212?accountid ¼27575〉. [72] Oman Tribune. 2013. Boost to fisheries sector. Retrieved from: ( http://www. omantribune.com/index.php? page=editorial_details&id=1885&heading=EDITORIAL). [73] A. Omezzine, On-shore fresh fish markets in Oman, J. Int. Food Agribus. Mark. 10 (1) (1999) 53–69. [74] A. Omezzine, H. Boughanmi, H. Al-Oufi, Demand Elasticities of fresh fish commodities: a case study, Agric. Mar. Sci. 8 (2) (2003) 55–61. [75] A. Omezzine, L. Zaibet, H. Al-Oufi, The marketing system of fresh fish products on the Maseerah Island in the Sultanate of Oman, Mar. Res. Econ. 11 (1996) 203–210. [76] D. Pauly, V. Christensen, S. Gue´nette, T.J. Pitcher, U.R. Sumaila, C.J. Walters, et al., Towards sustainability in world fisheries, Nature 418 (2002) 689–695. [77] R.I. Perry, U.R. Sumaila, Marine ecosystem variability and human community responses: the example of Ghana, West Africa, Mar. Policy 31 (2) (2007) 125–134. [78] J.E. Peterson, Oman’s diverse society: Southern Oman, Middle East J. 58 (2) (2004) 254–269. [79] R.S. Pomeroy, F. Berkes, Two to tango: the role of government in fisheries comanagement, Mar. Policy 21 (5) (1997) 465–480, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/ S0308-597X(97)00017-1. [80] R. Pomeroy, K.A.T. Nguyen, H.X. Thong, Small-scale marine fisheries policy in Vietnam, Mar. Policy 33 (2) (2009) 419–428. [81] E. Pourmohammadi, Duqm fishing harbour expected to be ready by 2016, 2014. Retrieved from: 〈http://www.timesofoman.com/News/Article-31174. aspx〉 (accessed 16.03.14). [82] E.G. Reis, F. D’Incao, The present status of artisanal fisheries of extreme southern Brazil: An effort towards community-based management, Ocean Coast. Manag. 43 (7) (2000) 585-595, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0964-5691 (00)00048-X. [83] S. Salas, R. Chuenpagdee, J.C. Seijo, A. Charles, Challenges in the assessment and management of small-scale fisheries in Latin America and the Caribbean, Fish. Res. 87 (2007) 5–16. [84] H. Shehadeh. Omani fisheries, sultanate’s wealth, 2010. Middle East Online, available online at: 〈http://www.middle-east-online.com/english/?id ¼40771〉 (accessed 26.03.11). [85] M. Sowman, P. Cardoso, Small-scale fisheries and food security strategies in countries in the Benguela current large marine ecosystem (BCLME) region:

248

[86]

[87]

[88]

[89] [90]

R. Belwal et al. / Marine Policy 61 (2015) 237–248

Angola, Namibia and South Africa, Mar. Policy 34 (6) (2010) 1163–1170, http: //dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2010.03.016. M. Sowman, J. Sunde, S. Raemaekers, O. Schultz, Fishing for equality: policy for poverty alleviation for South Africa’s small-scale fisheries, Mar. Policy 46 (2014) 31–42, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2013.12.005. T. Tanner, A. Mensah, E.T. Lawson, C. Gordon, R. Godfrey‐Wood, T. Cannon, Political Economy of Climate Compatible Development: Artisanal Fisheries and Climate Change in Ghana. IDS Working Papers, 2014, vol. 446, pp. 1–30. A. Thorpe, C. Reid, R. van Anrooy, C. Brugere, When fisheries influence national policy-making: an analysis of the national development strategies of major fish-producing nations in the developing world, Mar. Policy 29 (3) (2005) 211–222. M. Van den Berg, B.J. Lensing, Work sharing in Kerala’s fisheries, Mar. Policy 31 (4) (2007) 535–539, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2006.12.002. Wiener R. L., Wiley, D., Huelsman, T., Hilgemann, A. (1994). Needs Assessment:

[91] [92] [93] [94] [95]

combining qualitative interviews and concept mapping methodology. Evaluation Review, 18:227. B. Worm, R. Hilborn, J.K. Baum, T.A. Branch, J.S. Collie, C. Costello, et al., Rebuilding global fisheries, Science 325 (2009) 578–585. A. Younis, Spatial data integration for marine fisheries management of Oman (Doctoral dissertation, University of Leicester, United Kingdom, 2000. L.T. Zaibet, G.V. Chomo, Quality Assurance Systems for Fish Exports in Oman: Requirements and Choice, økonomisk Fiskeriforskning 9 (1) (1999) 1–8. S. Zekri, M. Mbaga, H. Boughanmi, Fishermen willingness to participate in an insurance program in Oman, Mar. Res. Econ. 23 (2008) 379–391. R. Züst, P. Troxler, Situation Analysis. No More Muddling Through, Springer, Netherlands (2006), p. 47–73.